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The Record. 



PUBLISHED BY THE 



ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN DRAFTSMEN 



WASHINGTON, D. C. 



1897. 



3 |B9? ! 






The Record 



PUBLISHED BY THE 
/ 
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN DRAFTSMEN. 



WASHINGTON, D. C. 
1 897. 




n 



'45 



Entered according to act of Congress. A. D. 1897, 

by the association of American r •raftsmen. 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress. Washington. D. C. 



(2) 



J K 



NOTICE. 

The Association as a body is not responsible for 
any statement of individual members, such responsi- 
bility resting entirely with those making the state- 
MENTS. 



(3) 



OFFICERS 

OF THE 

ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN DRAFTSMEN. 

1897. 



president: 
SIDNEY I. BESSELIEVRE. 

Uice=lpresioents: 

W. A. DOBSON. J. W. SIMS. W. T. POWELL. 

Secretary: 
F. R. WHEATER. 

Bsststant Secretary: 

J. W. BYRNE. 

treasurer: 
A. KLAKRING. 

Council: 

S. I. BESSELIEVRE. A. KLAKRING. 

W. A. DOBSON. J. W. SIMS. 

F. R. WHEATER. J. S. LATIMER. 

J. W. BYRNE. A. M. P. MASCHMEYER. 

JEoitorial Staff: 
W. A. DOBSON. C. C. DODGE. WM. T. JONES. 



(4) 



ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN DRAFTSMEN. 

Organized January 1, 1892. 

The object of the Association of American Draftsmen is to pro- 
mote and encourage a closer union of fellowship of the American 
Draftsmen in Government and private employ, and to discourage 
the employment of foreign to the detriment of American talent. 
Statistics germane to this object to be collected, and an eye kept on 
the various infringements and violations of the alien and civil 
service laws. A directory in which are placed the names of the 
members with their special business qualifications is kept, so that 
when a member loses his position the Secretary, being notified, may 
in turn notify the members to keep a lookout for a vacancy suitable 
to special department of the member desiring employment. 

The Association consists of active and honorary members. The 
active members being draftsmen or those whose duties associate 
them professionally with draftsmen, and the honorary members 
such persons upon whom the Association may see fit to confer hono- 
rary distinction, who are entitled to all the privileges of active mem- 
bers except the right to vote and hold office. Unanimous consent 
being necessary to the election of the latter, and three negative votes 
rejecting an applicant for membership. 

All applications for membership must be sent to the Secretary of 
the Association and considered by the Council at least one week 
before being submitted for action at the meetings of the Association. 
which are held quarterly. 

None but citizens of the United States are eligible to membership. 
American citizens of foreign birth must reside in the United Slates 
ten (10) years previous to application for membership. All appli- 
cants must be recommended by three (3) active members of the 
Association and be thoroughly identified as being in sympathy with 
the object of the Association. The initiation fee, which must 

(5) 



6 THE RECORD. 

accompany the application for membership, is one dollar ($ 1.00), 
and the annual dues, payable in advance on the 1st day of January, 
are also one dollar ($1.00), except in the case of members of Chap- 
ters where the dues are determined by a § vote of the membership of 
such Chapter. The officers of the Association consist of a president, 
three (3) vice-presidents, secretary, assistant secretary, and treasurer, 
elected annually, who, with the representatives from the Chapters 
(each Chapter is entitled to one (1) representative) and two (2) rep- 
resentatives-at-large, form the Council, with headquarters at Wash- 
ington, D. C. The duties of the Council are to exercise a general 
superintendence over the affairs of the Association, to control and 
manage its property, to make contracts and purchases, to authorize 
the formation of Chapters, and to arbitrate and settle inter-profes- 
sional disputes among members of the Association, should any arise. 
Chapters may be organized in any city where ten (10) members of 
the Association reside, subject to the limitations of the Constitution. 
For further information, address the Secretary of the Association 
of American Draftsmen, Washington, D. C. 



MINUTES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 

Four regular and two special meetings of the Association were 
called by the President during 1896 ; at the annual meeting held 
in January a motion for the revision of the Constitution was adopted 
and a special committee appointed for such purpose ; at the two spe- 
cial meetings called in February the revision of the Constitution was 
concluded and the Report, as adopted, referred to the Council for 
final adjudication. This was soon accomplished and Constitutions 
were printed and forwarded to each member. The first edition of 
The Record, authorized in January, 1895, appeared in 1896, and 
has been sent out to the membership. The Association was incor- 
porated under the laws of the District of Columbia, in Washington, 
D. C, March 14, 1896, and a seal adopted. 

During 1896 a Chapter was chartered in Philadelphia, Pa., to be 
known as Philadelphia Chapter of the Association of American 
Draftsmen. 



THE RECORD. 7 

The membership on January 1, 1896 , 108 

Members elected during 1896 ' 92 

Members dropped for non-payment of dues during 1896 24 

Resignations during 1896 (accepted) 1 

Died during 1896 2 

Total membership January 1, 1897 173 

Elected since January 1, 1897 46 

Grand total, May, 1897 219 

Cash balance on hand January 22, 1896 $155.72 

Cash received to January, 1897 174.04 



Total . 329.76 

Expended during 1896 229.47 



Cash balance on hand January, '97 $100.29 

Respectfully submitted. 

W. T. Jones, 

Secretary. 



Railroad Car Design* 

By Archer Richards, Member. 

The product of the American Car Builder to-day ranks deservedly 
high. In point of scientific knowledge and in finish and ornamen- 
tation it equals the grandest product of kindred arts. A result of 
the highest ingenuity, it is founded upon an experience drawn from 
the practice in the car shop, supplemented by tests obtained from 
actual service. While the practice and the science of car construc- 
tion arc primarily of great importance, a thorough knowledge o\' 
design is indispensable to the Car Draftsman. The principles of 
design are common to all the arts. 

In railroad cars this cultivated taste soon becomes apparent, lor 
here arc pursued the laws of perfect adaptation of means to an end. 
Utility is not alone to be considered, for a barn-like appearance to an 



8 THE RECORD. 

otherwise perfectly running vehicle would not be long tolerated by 
the traveling public, and the roads operating such misshapen cars 
would find their earnings materially affected. Thus the Car Drafts- 
man is compelled to adapt himself to the rapidly growing desire of 
the American people, not only to be carried speedily and expedi- 
tiously in their journeys, but in the most perfect models of design, 
embodying all the ideas of grace, fitness, form and proportion. He 
must select the forms which are the most beautiful, the colors most 
harmonious, and he must be able to convey in his designs symbols of 
strength, power, magnificence, and splendor, giving to his work the 
stamp and originality of genius. 

In the year 1883, and in a few instances previous to that time, a 
decided step was taken toward better design ; the traditional shapes 
and forms which had up to this time been in constant Use were dis- 
carded for newer shapes and patterns. The Car Builder had given 
to his product the highest mechanical perfection ; he must now turn 
his energies into the. higher realms of taste. He was not slow in 
applying forms derived from the classics, bringing to his aid also 
natural forms suggestive of ideas of pleasure, repose, elegance, mas- 
siveness, grace, and sublimity ; in addition creating new forms most 
pleasing to the eye and subject to the treatment which the surround- 
ings would require. 

If the structural qualities are circumscribed as to shape and form, 
not so the ornamental, which have no limit beyond that of the power 
of the mind to conceive, and the hand to execute. That is a poor 
design which represents nothing but a few flowers, sticks, and leaves. 
It must have character as well as beauty, and that character is given 
to it at the very start. It is upon this skeleton and framework that 
the Car Draftsman is required to use all his knowledge and skill. 

In brief, I will show the analogy which the structure of a car bears 
to that of a bridge, for a well designed bridge is generally admitted 
to be worthy of great admiration in its perfect equilibrium and static 
repose. This analogy will help the mind in its perception of a well 
designed car. The sides of a car are two trusses, these form the 
span, and rest upon two supports " S " and " S 1," as shown 
in Diagram. 





(0) 



10 THE RECORD. 

The style of the truss may be of the Howe, Pratt, Whipple, 
or of any other construction. This selected, it is then filled in 
completely with carefully prepared boards. Since the bottom 
sills or lower chord cannot be trusted with too much tension, 
they are trussed with rods and turnbuckles. Before the siding is 
glued on or nailed, or the inside work put in, or sashes fitted, the 
body is cambered at point "C" about one inch and a half. This 
forces the uprights out of the vertical, as shown at " D-D," and gives 
a slight bow to the roof line, preventing a draggled appearance. The 
overhanging ends or cantilevers are made as short as possible, and 
are held up by an additional brace and rod passing from end to end 
of car, this is shown at " E— E," and gives a rakish look, which, with 
the additional lifting of the platform arms at " A- A," compensates 
for the tendency of drooping ends caused by heavy draw gear. The 
center and intermediate stringers are designed to carry the pull 
strains, and are kept in position by heavy cross timbers and irons, 
with truss rods passing over " X-X " and " Y-Y." The lateral 
strains above the top plate are carried by iron and wooden carlins 
so spaced to give convenient openings for deck shafts to admit light 
and ventilation. 

In past ages we find evidences that man's natural proclivities were 
directed toward the decoration and elaboration of buildings ; in or- 
der to diversify these surfaces he brought into play the beautiful 
gradations of light and shade. If these gradations followed the 
principles of contrast and repetition, they asserted themselves as or- 
naments. Upon the examination of the various types of ornaments 
we see two motives : A desire of instructing the mind by symbolism, 
and the pleasing of the eye by sestheticism. 

The elements of design were well established long ago, and from 
them we could deduce the following seven conditions of attractive- 
ness : 

First. The meaning to be conveyed, irrespective of its value as a 
work of art. 

Second. Contrast of light and shade. 

Third. Balancing of lines and spaces. 



THE RECORD. 



11 



Fourth. Repetition of pleasing effects. 
Fifth. Variety of surface. 
Sixth. Contrast and harmony of color. 
Seventh. Choice and arrangement of material. 
In preparing designs for the interior of a car, special reference is 
had to these conditions of design, also to the styles employed by 




DE5IGH HO 1. ILLV5TRATJKG ECYPTJAM STYLE. 

past designers. The classical styles of the Egyptians, Greeks, and 
Romans are suggestive of something more than the uses to which 
they were put in former times, and for beauty of outline and repose 



12 



ADDRESSES DELIVERED BEFORE 



and cosily books about him, containing the representation of all 
that is beautiful in decorative ait in other lands: with statues, casts 
and models all around ; with his walls hung with paintings; and 
on the table before him, the spotless sheet that is to receive the 
impress of his genius, as he turns the old ten plate Stove into a 
thing of grace and elegance. Thus prepared, the artist begins 
his work. His hand has never touched the moulding sand or 
held the ladle, whose bright and sparkling charge of liquid metal 
is to flow, that the forms he traces on the fragile paper may be 
perpetuated by other hands in iron. But the founder is depend- 
ent upon him — he must toil before the iron can be poured ; be- 
cause there is a public taste ever refining, ever exacting, which 
requires that there should be an union of intellect and labor even 
for the simple purpose we are describing. There is no reason 
why the founder should not be his own artist — why he should 
not find around his cupola the information, the taste, that he re- 
quires. In time this will come to pass. When Penny Maga- 
zines, Knowledge for the Million, Science in Sport, Philosophy 
Made Easy, Peter Parley in his line, and institutions like our 
own, shall have accomplished their purposes, this will be so. 
But, in the meanwhile, the union of intellect and labor must be 
found in the joint exertions of different individuals; and hence it 
is, that in our history of the t^n-plate stove 5 we have begun in the 
studio of an artist Nor are we without our warrant for so doing. 
In 1835, a single firm of stove manufacturers, of Sheffield, Eng- 
land, paid $7,500 for designs alone of stoves, grates and fenders. 
After the artist comes the modeler, should the design require 
it; and the art of the modeler is part of that of the statuary — and 
the leaves, or arabesque, or mouldings are formed in clay or wax, 
until the drawing is executed in the form which the iron is to 
assume. Working with the moulder, perhaps the moulder him- 
self, is the pattern maker, no longer a rough planer of boards, but 
an artizan of finished skill in working in wood, who completes 
the pattern from which the casting is to be made. Give to the 
pattern maker the advantages which are becoming more accessi- 
ble to him every day, and he will take the artist's place, and 
each form that he creates will be suggestive of another; and with 
crayon and chisel alternating in his hands, with a refined and 



THE MARYLAND INSTITUTE. 1 3 

accomplished taste and creative fancy, united with consummate 
mechanical skill, he will be ihe impersonation of the idea we 
have here endeavored to elaborate. Benvenuto Cellini was a 
soldier, an author and a silversmith. The day of such men may 
arrive again. At length the model reaches the foundery,and the 
mouid is to be made from it; not as in the olden day, when the 
casting came from the flask with a thick coat of sand, which had 
to be scraped and picked away before there was a saleable result. 
The mould is to be made so that the casting shall be as smooth 
as those specimens of Berlin iron which ladies wear in necklaces 
and ear-rings. Instead of moulding a plain surface, the moulder 
has now to form in the sand all that the artist has traced in his 
studio. His eye must be accurate, his touch as light as a fea- 
ther and yet as steady as a rock. Cool and deliberate, exercis- 
ing judgment at every turn, the moulder, kneeling on the floor, 
with his trowel, and rammer, and hooks beside him, with the 
smoky roof above him, obtaining light as he may through win- 
dows blackened with soot, with the roar of the cupola in his ear, 
the moulder, thus circumstanced, completes his work, and closes 
the flask, ready for the iron. Upon the accuracy of his work de- 
pends the entire result. The artist must design in reference to 
what the moulder can do; and the increasing beauty which we 
daily see in ornamental castings is evidence of increasing skill 
and intelligence on the part of the latter. Were the moulder able 
to design, nothing would be designed that could not be executed; 
execution would suggest designs, and skill and intellect would 
be united in this part of the operation. At last the gate of the 
cupola is opened, and the stream of melted iron pours into the 
ladle, and, amid the dust and noise, the hurry and confusion, 
rough dark men, with faces averted from the flaming stream, re- 
ceive the melted metal as it runs, and, transferring it to the 
moulder's flask, fill form after form prepared for it in the sand, 
and, amid a thousand sparkling stars, give to the conception of 
the artist's brain a permanent and useful form. Here ends the 
picturesque of the history of the successor of (he ten-plate stove : 
Crowded on curb stones, rattling on drays, piled in warehouses, 
blackened with grease, banged with tongs, aye, spit upon and 
abused, it fills its base uses, unlil, burnt out, it is broken up into 



14 



THE RECORD. 



"With farther attempts at elaboration we have, on the other side, 
the representation of the Ionic era of design. Here the scroll is in 
evidence. Panels are decorated, some small attempts of floral and 
wreath with a general indication of further advance of luxurious 




r— j |«5=rf 




\*7 



DESIGn riO.3 1LLVoT£AT)MG EOMAH . COMPOSITE STYLE . 

design It has been well said. "That a national pride is one of the 
ltading points in the history of Greece, and that grace and beauty 
were a part of their national lite." 

The Romans were more fortunate in possessing models of the 
CV-rinthian order, borrowed, to be sure, but further elaborated by 



THE RECORD. 15 

them in their magnificent buildings and triumphal arches. Much 
of their success in these famous works was due to their knowledge 
and use of the arch. In Figure 3 is represented an example of 
Roman interior; like that of the Greek cousin, the order may be 
divided into three parts: Stylobate, column, and entablature. The 
first and lower division is taken at five diameters or less, the height 
of column at ten diameters or more, and the entablature at two 
diameters. These dimensions, fixed in architecture, can be varied 
by the Car Designer to suit his requirements. The refinement and 
delicacy of the various parts of this structural ornamentation has no 
limit. The decorative Acanthus leaf, with all its beautiful folia- 
tions, is held responsible for all the vagaries of art which it spon- 
sors. As a conventional treatment of a natural ornament it, how- 
ever, has no equal in the field of design. We see it spreading its 
rows of leaves around the capital, the helices and tendrils trussed 
with its foliage and the panels filled with suggestions furnished by 
its growth. In this order the entablature varies from two to two 
and a half diameters and is enriched with carved mouldings, modil- 
lions and a frieze, frequently decorated with garlands, etc. The 
arch is sprung above, as it were, to relieve some of the weight, and 
a carving gives richness to the panel below. On either side and 
subordinate to the center design are smaller panels and arch effects. 
These add greatly to the attractiveness as panels, and aids the gen- 
eral symmetry of the design. 

Simple forms well proportioned are of themselves attractive and 
are more easily grasped by the mind than complex ones, and an 
excess of elaboration should be carefully avoided. On the right 
hand side of the figure is illustrated a composite design; the general 
features of this style and many others which might be evolved from 
a combination of the preceding orders arc frequently made with 
propriety and good effect. 

In presenting this general view of the antique styles as applied to 
Car Decoration, reference might be made to the designs employed by 
the Syrians, Chaldeans, Persians and Assyrians. 'These varieties are 



16 THE RECORD. 

not frequently employed. So also might it be said of the Mediaeval 
orders, which include the Byzantine, Saracenic, or Arabic and Moor- 
ish, the French and English Gothic. The first two have furnished 
models of decorations for centuries, and for richness of effect cannot 
be surpassed. The great magnificence of the treatment as a whole 
is worthy of admiration, but viewed in detail does not arrest the 
attention of the beholder. To suit the requirements of Symbolism 
in this age the Classical forms were modified, noticeable in the scroll 
which terminated in three, four, five leaves, symbols of religious 
importance. Care should be taken in thus discarding the Classic 
Symbols of beauty for these Mediaeval peculiarities of Christian art, 
which seldom attained that purity of line and form sought after by 
the Greeks. 

The third and last division of the Gothic grew out of the Byzan- 
tine. Its development has stamped the Norman, Lombard, Saxon 
and Romanesque styles with the indelible marks of an ecclesiastical 
era of modern art, remarkable for its delicate tracery and the uses of 
the plain and pointed arch. 

In modern art we have an attempt by the Nations of the world to 
formulate other schemes of decoration more or less beautiful to us. 
The commencement of the Renaissance marks a distinct era for the 
restoration of the Classic principles of beauty. 

In this revival the decorators were not obliged to follow any ideas 
save those which governed the aesthetic. The Italian renaissance 
sprang from the Saracenic, the Venetian from the Byzantine, the 
French from both. The beautiful style of the Cinquecento, the final 
aim of the Renaissance with its Arabesque scroll work and its wonder- 
ful assimulation of everything in nature, animal, and vegetable, ended 
with the sixteenth century. The very fact of its comprehensiveness 
has led to its decay, in that too large a field is presented to the de- 
signer for him to successfully draw from. The close of the seven- 
teenth century saw a new style in the decoration of Louis XIV. A 
profusion and brilliancy of ornament without taste or elegance char- 
acterizes this period. 



THE RECORD. 



17 



On the left-hand side of Figure 4 is represented an example of 
Louis XVI decoration. Exact symmetry is not here required ; by 
the name of Rococo this style has nourished at different times, but 
seldom attracts more than a passing attention. Louis XVI com- 




DESICn rt941L.LV/STRATlr1G LOI/I5 XV. XVI. STYLE. 

pletes this figure. A greater degree of regularity and a belter de- 
sign are there worthy of notice. The history of Prance is the his- 
tory of design at this time, and with the dawn of the empire, a 
decoration bearing that name and well suited to a victorious nation. 



18 



THE RECORD. 



unites the emblems of France with these decorations of former ar- 
tists and produces a style worthy of special notice. 

Figure No. 5 illustrates the severity and grace of the empire deco- 
ration. By the repetition of simple elements and the fitness of line 
and space, combined with the curves of drooping garlands and the 
disposition of floating ribbons with the adaptation of the Fluer de lis 




DeSIGH ttO.5 JLLV6TRATiriG FREHCH . EMPIRE STYLE. 



and other symbols of monarchy, there is a great charm for the mind. 
They have great possibilities, and if put in the hands of properly 
instructed designers would be of great service in constructing a na- 
tional design. 



THE RECORD. 19 

To the designer these styles are important, from the fact that any 
step towards developing a new style must be made in the light shed 
upon his path by these various forms, and his improvement rests 
not so much upon copying any of these types, as in the manner of 
using, the principles from which they were evolved. Mixture of 
styles does not always secure the best results, so that a composite 
order will not always possess the attractiveness desirable. One might 
show a perfect arrangement of the component parts of an order, and 
yet use great ignorance in applying them for the purposes of deco- 
ration. Jn no sense have decorations taken direct from nature ever 
succeeded as a decorative model. To be ornamental the details 
should not attract the eye further than is necessary to make it a 
part of the structure, and it should be subservient to the general ef- 
fect. To conventionalize nature, to give it character and to embody 
it in structural effects, is the sphere of the draftsman. To cover a 
surface with design requires a moderate degree of knowledge, to 
cover portions of a surface requires invention and thoughtful delib- 
eration, and then should the designer select forms the most beautiful 
and in which the smallest amount of material is employed to gain 
the effect. His efforts should not be in copying what has been done, 
but rather let him by discipline, acquire a knowledge beyond copy- 
ing, so that he can produce a style more entirely his own, and useful 
to the age in which he labors. 






Notes on the Ventilation of Ships. 

By Henry S. Epes. Member. 

The problem of thorough and efficient ventilation for ships is on 
that is engaging the serious attention of naval architects at the pres 
ent time. The modern steel vessel, divided as it is into numerous 
water-tight and practically air-tight compartments, crowded with a 
constantly increasing quantity of heat-producing machinery, has, in 
a great measure, lost the airy and comfortable quarters, and Large 
and roomy deck spaces which were possessed by the old wooden 



THE RECORD. 

ships. Thf se wooden vessels were ventilated principally by means 
of their air ports and hatchways, and. beyond the occasional u~ 
windsails to ventilate some of the spaces below the water line, th - 

ordinarily considered sufficient for the comfort and health of 
those on board. Artificial means of ventilation were rarely resorted 
i But in the modern type of ship th- :■: ise is very different. To 
any one who goes on board the up-to-date ship and makes a tour of, 
nr»t only the engine and boiler spaces, hut of the numerous smaller 
compartments within which a vast amount of the auxiliary ma- 
chinery is located, it is obvious that the former methods of ventila- 
tion are totally inadequate to rid the ve ssel of the intolerable heat 
and noxious odors, which are more noticeable and oppressive be- 
cause of the srnalhiess of the compartments and the limited natural 
means tor their escape. This is especially true in the case of war 
vessels, where, in addition, the quarters are usually cramped, and 
the store rooms, _ neralry do not open near enough to batch- 

ways overhead to derive much ventilation from that source by means 
of windsails. It is at once seen that sonie other means must be 
adopted to thoroughly ventilate the ship, not only on account of the 
health of the crew and for the preservation of si res, but to enable 
them to properly perform their wurk. which they cannot do if forced 
: main in an t:: - : ly hot place for any length of time. 

It is not proposed in this paper to discuss the hygienic questions 
involved in a general study of this subject — the amount of carbonic 
acid gas rganic i inorganic matter which may be inhaled without 
detriment to health, etc.. nor the amount of fresh air per individual 
which should !>e furnished the inmates of an enclosed space within 
:tain fixed period, in order to insure perfect ventilation. This 
portion of the subject is not yet unanimously _ i upon, eminent 
authorities advancing widely different theories in relation to same. 
Those who are interested in this aspect of the question, however, 
will find instruction and entertainment by perusing the theories ad- 
vanced in standard works on Hygiene, and also the excellent paper 
on Ventilation of Ships by F. B. Bowst. M. E . which, together with 



THE RECORD. 21 

an interesting discussion thereon, may be found in the Transactions 
of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Vol. 3, 
1895. 

Assuming, therefore, that the volume of fresh air to be furnished 
and the time in which the air in the various compartments of the 
vessel is to be changed, is fixed upon beforehand according to some 
one of the before mentioned theories, it is proposed to review the 
various methods used to accomplish the desired end; to discuss the 
good and bad qualities of each, and to point out what seems to be 
the best practice regarding the details of installation and fittings for 
same as a result of several years of practical experience. 

The various methods used to ventilate a ship may be divided 
under two headings — natural ventilation and artificial ventilation — 
to which may perhaps be added a third, which partakes somewhat of 
the nature of both systems, while properly belonging to neither — a sort 
of induced draft, or a current of air put in motion through a system 
of piping by having one end of same connected with a trunk, which 
carries off great heat, such as the ship's funnel. 

By natural ventilation is meant all devices used to change the air 
in any space without recourse to fans or other mechanical means of 
putting the air in motion. Doors, hatchways, airports, etc., are used 
for this purpose wherever and whenever possible, and for compart- 
ments well above the water line these are usually considered suffi- 
cient, except in cases where great heat accumulates, as in dynamo 
rooms, in rooms which contain steam machinery or which arc 
located in the neighborhood of the boilers. In addition, natural 
ventilation is furnished by ventilators or air shafts of various shape 
led upward from the compartments below and terminating above 
the upper deck, where either a fixed hood, open all around, ov a 
movable cowl, which can be turned in any direction, is fitted. 
Sometimes a compartment is fitted with two or more ventilators so 
arranged that a- part of them have their cowls turned toward the 
wind, forming a, downcast for fresh air, and the remainder with 
their cowls turned away from the direction of the wind form uptakes 
for the air which will be forced from the compartment by this 



22 THE RECORD. 

arrangement. Another method of natural ventilation is to connect 
a system of piping with the ventilating cowls and thus distribute 
fresh air to various compartments below. This method has been 
used on some low-freeboard vessels, where all hatches and other 
openings to the atmosphere have to be closed and battened down in 
a sea-way. and, when so used in connection with artificial exhaust. 
has been considered efficacious. 

But for most of the spaces below water, or those which have to be 
kept closed for any great length of time, or within which excessively 
high temperatures are usual, no method of natural ventilation is 
found to be sufficient. Recourse is, therefore, taken to artificial 
means for forcing fresh air into and pumping foul air out of these 
parts of the vessel. This is usually done by means of rotary fans, 
driven either by steam or electric power. When the fan is used to 
force fresh air into the ship, the method is termed a supply or plenum 
system, and when the fan pumps the air out of the vessel it is called 
an exhaust or vacuum system of ventilation. 

When one fan is used to ventilate a number of compartments by 
either of the above methods, it is connected to a system of piping, 
the main duct of which is usually carried fore and aft for the full 
length of spaces to be ventilated, and branches from same are led 
into or registers directly connected to the main duct open within 
each compartment. The methods of installation used in different 
vessels are as varied in detail as are the ships themselves. This is 
due sometimes to local causes, such as the arrangement of the com- 
partments peculiar to each type of ship, but more often to the indi- 
vidual ideas of those in charge of their construction. In some 
vessels it is attempted to make one or two large fans do the whole 
work of ventilating all the compartments from stem to stern. This 
necessitates the use of long lines of piping, which occupy consider- 
able room, because of the large diameters required to convey the 
volume of air allotted to the several compartments with due regard 
to the loss of velocity by frictional resistance. If. as is often the 
case, the piping is constructed without reference to this loss by fric- 



THE RECORD. 23 

tion, the ventilation of the compartments farthest away from the 
fan always proves unsatisfactory, and the general inefficiency of the 
system is the cause of much just complaint on shipboard. It is 
usually attempted to remedy this defect by increasing the speed of 
the fan, and consequently increasing the velocity of the air through 
the duct, but, quoting the language of Mr. Dowst in his paper before 
referred to, "A limit is soon reached in the capacity of the motor, 
whether steam or electric, for, although the velocity with which the 
air leaves the shell of the fan increases directly with the speed, the 
volume increasing in the same proportion, yet the power absorbed 
by the fan increases as the third power of the speed." 

In other vessels there is greater subdivision of the work imposed 
on the ventilating fans. Separate systems are installed, the work of 
each being confined to a single portion of the ship's compartments. 
By this means smaller fans can be used, the ducts can be smaller 
and shorter, and the problem of serious loss of velocity by frictional 
resistance is not so difficult to solve. Another advantage is that 
this subdivision, if properly arranged, does away with the necessity 
for piercing many of the principal bulkheads with the ducts, and 
with the difficult and not always satisfactory means used to make 
these openings in the bulkheads watertight in case of necessity. 

Another point of variance in ventilating methods, and one which 
is due entirely to individual ideas on the subject, is the use made of 
the supply system and the exhaust system, or of combinations of 
both, in connection with the ventilation of different vessels. In 
some ships, the exhaust system is used almost exclusively, and the 
air thus pumped out is arranged to be replaced by fresh air con- 
ducted to the various compartments by the natural methods before 
referred to. 

Again, in other vessels it is arranged to use the supply system 
principally, it being considered preferable to force the fresh air into 
the compartments and expel the vitiated air through the hatches, 
airports, ventilators, etc. Occasionally the two methods are used 
in conjunction, and it is probable that in many cases the besl results 



24 THE RECORD. 

are obtained by so doing. This arrangement, however, necessitates 
the installation of two separate systems for each compartment, thus 
doubling the number of blowers and the amount of piping to be 
used, increasing the cost of installation and requiring more space 
than can sometimes be conveniently allowed for it. In order to avoid 
this "doubling up," the fans are often constructed so that, the direc- 
tion of rotation of the fan remaining constant, by means of reversi- 
ble valves or dampers fresh air can be forced into, or foul air ex- 
hausted from the vessel through one system of piping. This is, of 
course, a compromise between the questions of efficiency on one 
hand and of cost and space on the other, for while the latter is de- 
creased about one-half, it is obvious that the former is also reduced 
in nearly the same proportion since the exhaust and supply cannot 
be carried on at the same time. However, the reversible system, 
properly designed and arranged, does possess many advantages over 
the single-way exhaust or supply methods where only one blower and 
system of piping can be fitted for a given number of compartments, 
as will be readily seen, and a large number of the vessels of the U. 
S. Navy have their artificial ventilation arranged in this manner. 

In regard to the relative merits of the exhaust and supply methods 
of ventilation there is some difference of opinion. It is claimed by 
some eminent authorities on the subject that where but one system 
can be used the exhaust method is preferable when the work to be 
done is simply that of aerating or ventilating, as is the case in sleep- 
ing apartments, living spaces, and other parts of the vessel not sub- 
ject to high temperatures. It is claimed that the velocity of air 
leaving a room through an exhaust opening wiry range from 400 to 
600 feet per minute without being perceptible, and that even higher 
velocities may be used without producing any disagreeable effects or 
annoyance to the occupants. On the other hand it is said that the 
velocity of air entering an apartment, especially at or near the floor, 
should not exceed 120 feet per minute. If all this be true, it is ob- 
vious that much larger ducts and registers would be required for the 
supply system than would be necessary for the exhaust, assuming that 



THE RECORD. 25 

the volume of air to be changed per minute is the same in each case. 
Again, it is claimed by others that where the air is exhausted from 
a compartment, and no artificial supply system is used at the same 
time to force in air fresh from the atmosphere, that the air supply is 
drawn in principally from contiguous compartments in which the 
degree of purity is very little greater than that of the air exhausted 
from the first-named space. Assuming this to be true, it is argued 
that if a duct of no larger dimensions than that required for the ex- 
haust system is used for supply, even at no greater velocity than 120 
feet per minute, as mentioned above, a larger volume of pure air 
would be furnished and the compartment more efficiently ventilated 
than by using the exhaust system alone. From all this it would 
seem that where but one system is used better results would.be ob- 
tained by the use of the plenum system, especially when the vessel 
is in a seaway with most of the air ports closed and hatches battened 
down. As regards the velocity of air through openings in supply 
ducts not being allowed to exceed 120 feet per minute without an- 
noyance, the writer will say that in all his experience in connection 
with the installation and operation of systems of ventilation on ship- 
board, he has yet to hear the first complaint made that the velocity 
of supply was too great or that too much fresh air was being fur- 
nished. In some cases by actual test the velocity of supply ranged 
from 500 to 1,000 feet per minute, and in several special instances 
where the velocity approached 2,000 feet there was no appreciable 
whistling caused by the passage of the air through the openings, 
notwithstanding the fact that it has been stated by those in a posi- 
tion to know that whistling would ensue if the velocity exceeds! 
1 ,000 feet per minute. 

So far as the writer is able to discern, therefore, there appears to 
be no good reason why ducts used for supply cannot be made of the 
same dimensions as those used for exhaust, and if this be true, one 
of the principal objections raised against making a single system of 
ventilation reversible falls to the ground. It is not held thai all the 
present methods used to make a reversible system are perfect. There 



26 THE RECORD. 

are many points of detail that might be improved. Some of the re- 
versible fans used are so constructed that the air has to pass over 
sharp edges and through quick bends before reaching the main duct 
in case of supply, and before reaching the inlet to center of fan in 
case of exhaust. This results in a loss of velocity at the start But 
it is believed that these defects can be overcome and that a reversi- 
ble system can be designed which will work equally as well at ex- 
haust or supply as would similar single way systems. 

What has been written above applies only to the ventilation of 
such compartments as do not contain sources of great heat. The 
proper methods of ventilation for engine rooms, dynamo rooms. 
etc.. are pretty well agreed upon. Here the question becomes one 
of rendering these compartments habitable by keeping the tempera- 
ture within reasonable limits, rather than one concerning the mete 
removal of impure air. There is no doubt but that the best way to 
accomplish this is to force in a large volume of cool fresh air at a 
velocity great enough to keep the air vigorously agitated, and to 
exhaust an equal volume from the compartment in the same time. 
It is. therefore, the best practice to install both supply and exhaust 
systems for these compartments, and as tar as possible to make them 
independent of the ventilation systems used for the other portions of 
the ship. 

In designing the artificial ventilating arrangements for a vessel, 
the first thing to be done is to decide upon the methods to be used, 
and also the subdivisions to be made, which, for reasons before 
mentioned, should be as numerous as possible. This being done 
and the time fixed upon in which it is desired to change the air in 
the various compartments, blowers are selected of sufficient capacity 
to do the work required in each case. It is usual to drive these 
fans either by steam or by electric power and to deliver the volume 
of air at the mouth of the fan case with velocities corresponding to 
pressures of blast ranging from J ounce to 1 ounce per square inch. 
In some special cases H ounces pressure is used, but this amount is 
rarelv exceeded. 



THE RECORD. 



27 



To find the cubical capacity of a blower the following formula is 

used: 

A X B X C X R 



where 

A = 

B = 

C = 

R = 



dia. of fan in feet, 
width of face of fan in ft. 
circumference of fan in ft. 
revolutions of fan per 

minute, 
cubic ft. of air discharged 

per minute. 



and where 

A X B 
3 



and 

C 



R 



square feet of 
space which the 
blower will hold 
up to or fill. 

: velocity corre- 
sponding to the 
given pressure. 

The velocities corresponding to various pressures of blast may be 
obtained by reference to any hand book on the subject. Those of 
particular interest, as far as the subject matter of this paper is con- 
cerned, are as follows: 
Pressures per square inch. Corresponding vel. in ft. per min. 

\ oz 3657.6 

f oz 4482. 

1 oz , 5175. 

In designing the system of conducting pipes the question of loss 
of velocity by frictional resistance must be carefully considered. 
Mr. Dowst, in his paper before mentioned, tells us that "the loss by 
frictional resistance of air flowing in pipes varies directly as the 
length of the pipe, the second power of the velocity, and inversely 
as the diameter." He says further that "it is customary to have 
the conducting pipe leave the fan with an area equal to the area of 
the outlet on the fan case, and compensate for loss by frictional 
resistance by gradually increasing the area of the main pipe. This 
may be done by deducting from the area of the main pipe, at inter- 
vals of from 20 to 25 feet, the aggregate area of all the branch pipes 
taken from the preceding 20 or 25 feet of main pipe, and adding 10 



28 THE RECORD. 

or 15 per cent, to the remainder to determine the area of the next 
length, carrying this on to the end of the system, and observing 
that the aggregate area of all the branch pipes that are to be oper- 
ated simultaneously from the system equals the area of the main 
pipe at the fan. Where the branch pipes exceed 25 feet in length, 
increase their area by 10 per cent, to compensate for loss by fric- 
tional resistance, this 10 per cent, additional area not being taken 
into consideration in computing the aggregate area of branch pipes." 
It amounts, practically, to the same thing to consider that from 
10 to 15 per cent, of the velocity is lost in every 20 or 25 feet of 
length of straight pipe ; that is to say, the velocity in the second 
length equals from 85 to 90 per cent, of the velocity in the first 
length, the velocity in the third equals from 85 to 90 per cent, of 
the velocity in the second, and so on to the end of the system. It 
it is also found that every 90° bend in the pipe is equal to a 20 or 
25 foot length of straight pipe as far as loss of velocity is concerned, 
provided that the bend is properly made with easy curvature ; other- 
wise the loss would be greater. Where the branch pipes leave the 
main duct the joint should be made with the smallest possible angle 
to the direction of the air current and the branch curved to the de- 
sired direction by a very easy bend. If this is properly done the 
velocity of the air entering the branch pipe may be considered to 
be very nearly the same as the velocity in the length of main duct 
from which the branch is taken, and calculation for further loss of 
velocity in the branch may be made in the same manner as described 
for the main duct. Where the velocity in the branch pipe is greater 
than is desired at the point where it opens into a compartment of 
the vessel, the terminal velocity may be reduced to any desired 
amount bj increasing the area of the branch for a few feet back 
from the opening. Knowing, therefore, the velocity in each of the 
lengths of main duct and in the branches taken therefrom, it is easy 
to find the area of branch pipe required to pass a given volume of 
air per minute, and also to calculate the area required for the suc- 
cessive lengths of main duct. This may be done with a reasonable 
certaint} 7 that the results obtained when the system is in practical 



THE RECORD. 29 

operation will closely approximate the calculations if the method of 
compensating for loss by frictional resistance quoted from Mr. Dowst's 
paper is correct, and if proper care is taken with the construction 
and installation of the piping. Care should be taken to have the 
inner surface of the pipes smooth and to see that no projecting lips 
are left on the inside when making the joints of same; to make all 
changes of direction with easy curvature, and to allow no flattening 
or other alteration in the shape of the piping that would reduce its 
designed area at any point. Piping of circular section should be 
used wherever possible, as, for a given area, this form presents the 
least amount of surface for friction. 

Most of the artificial ventilating systems which have been installed 
on vessels of the U. S. Navy during recent years have their .blowers 
designed to deliver the air at the mouth of the fan case at about 
1 -ounce pressure. This was done because in most cases there is a 
considerable amount of piping connected to each system, and it was 
desirable and necessary to make this piping of as small dimensions 
as possible. A greater pressure would require much greater power 
on the part of the blowers to do the work desired, and if much lower 
pressure were used the ducts would become too large. When the 
blower is running at 1-ounce pressure and upwards, it is found that 
when a portion of the openings in the piping are closed the velocity 
of the air through the remainder increases. Where piping is de- 
signed to furnish a certain volume of air at a certain velocity through 
each of the registers when all are open, and the actual service ob- 
tained does not fall short of the designed, it is desirable in many 
cases that the velocity and volume should remain constant — that the 
opening and closing of registers in some compartments shall not 
affect the flow of air through the openings in others. An eminent 
authority on ventilating methods has designed a system o( piping 
which he claims will accomplish this. The methods of compensat- 
ing for loss by friction and the general construction of the piping- 
are the same as quoted from Mr. Dowst's paper, with this difference: 
The sum of the areas of all openings of branch pipes into the main 
duct is made equal to the "hold up" of the Ian, and the sum of* the 



30 THE RECORD. 

areas of the branches themselves equal to the area of the main pipe 
at the fan. By this means it is claimed that equal pressure will be 
maintained throughout the entire system, and that any number of 
the registers may be opened or closed at will without affecting the 
velocity or volume through the remainder. But it is further stated 
that this can be accomplished only when the fan is running at low 
pressure — that the air should be delivered at the mouth of the fan 
case at a pressure not much exceeding J ounce. It will be readily 
seen that the use of this system is impracticable on shipboard where- 
ever the fan is required to deliver large volumes of air through any 
considerable length of piping, because of the large diameters which 
would be required. It has, however, been installed in several ves- 
sels where the volume of air required is comparatively small, or 
where the system has been subdivided, as previously mentioned. 
The writer has thus far been unable to obtain the record of any test 
made of the actual service on shipboard of this "equal pressure" 
system, and is therefore unable to state whether or not it accom- 
plishes all that is claimed for it. 

To carry off dangerous gases which may be generated in the coal 
bunkers it is usual to fit an exhaust trunk with openings into each 
bunker. Connection is made from this trunk to the ship's funnel 
casing, or else one end of the trunk is carried upward through the 
funnel. The heat from the funnel puts in motion the air current in 
the exhaust duct, fresh air is drawn down to the bunkers through 
supply pipes leading from the upper deck to each bunker, and the 
gases and foul air are thus removed. 

It often becomes necessary to pierce watertight bulkheads and 
decks with the ventilating ducts, and various methods are used to 
make these openings watertight when necessary. Sometimes butter- 
fly or slide valves are fitted which are arranged to be operated from 
the deck above, or from the compartments in which they are located. 
In other instances automatic valves are depended upon to insure 
watertightness in an emergency. These are usually ball valves, and 
are fitted in various ways. All of these methods are more or less 
unsatisfactory. The butterfly valves can be made practically water- 



THE RECORD. 31 

tight, but in a sudden emergency there might not be time to close 
them. They also interfere with the passage of the air through the 
ducts, and it is often the case that they are improperly fitted, or else 
due precaution is not taken to see that they are properly opened. 
Unless the plane of the valve, when open, is exactly parallel to the 
axis of the duct, the effective area of the duct is decreased and the 
efficiency of the system thus impaired. The automatic ball valves 
can usually be depended upon to stop a sudden rush of water, but 
it is doubtful whether they can be relied upon to stop a gradual flow 
unless the valve seat is directly over the ball. To arrange it in this 
way at least a double bend is required, and this is objectionable on 
account of the loss of velocity which it causes. In the writer's opin- 
ion the least objectionable method is to fit a straightway automatic 
valve on one side of the bulkhead, and on the other, a gate or slide 
valve so arranged that it can be closed quickly from above. This 
arrangement will interfere the least with the passage of the air, and 
at the same time provide the maximum degree of safety in case of 
accident. Of course, it goes without saying that any style of fitting 
used must be constantly looked after and kept in thorough working- 
order, or else no reliance can be placed on it. 

Where registers are used, they should be designed so as to obstruct 
the passage of the air as little as possible when open. They should 
be so located that all the air in the compartment shall be changed 
to the best advantage. Where registers are fitted in the decks they 
should be made easily removable to facilitate cleaning of the ducts 
when necessary. Hand hole plates should be fitted in the ducts in 
way of all valves, to render them accessible without having to break 
the joints of the piping. Sometimes a judicious use of deflectors 
will greatly assist the distribution of fresh air supply through a 
compartment. There is an endless number of minor details which 
good judgment and a thorough appreciation of the principles in- 
volved will suggest in each particular case, and which can be used 
to materially increase the efficiency of any ventilation system. 

In conclusion, it may be said that practical experience with arti- 
ficial means for the ventilation of ships seems to show the besl prac- 
tice to be as follows: 



32 THE RECORD. 

1. Divide the ventilating system into as many independent pans 
as possible. Although this will increase the number of blowers, it 
will also enable the use of smaller and shorter piping, fewer bends. 
and minimize the number of openings necessary through watertight 
decks an'd bulkheads. 

2. In arranging the subdivisions, keep the ventilating arrange- 
ments for the hot compartments entirely separate from those fitted 
for the quarters and other spaces where the work to be done is 
simply that of aerating or ventilating. Wherever two compart- 
ments, in which there is great variation of the velocity and volume 
of air required, are connected to the same system, it is difficult to 
furnish just the right amount for each, and the A'entilation of either 
one or the other is almost sure to prove unsatisfactory. 

3. If possible, each compartment to be ventilated should be fur- 
nished with both artificial supply and artificial exhaust arranged to 
work in conjunction. This would insure the nearest perfect venti- 
lation in all cases, but would also double the number of blowers and 
piping systems required. Where cost and space will not allow of 
this, make the single system reversible. This will enable a change 
from exhaust to supply, and vice versa, at will, and is the next best 
arrangement when it is not practicable to fit The two separately. 

4. Wherever it is necessary to use an automatic valve in the con- 
ducting pipes, make the same straightway. Fit no valves whose use 
would make a bend necessary in the piping, or which would be 
likely to obstruct the passage of the air through the pipes. For this 
reason, a gate or a slide valve is preferable to a butterfly valve. 
Likewise make the registers so that they will obstruct the passage of 
the air as little as possible. It is surprising to find what a great 
difference an apparently slight obstruction makes in the flow of air 
through a system of piping. 

Wherever and whenever it is possible to do so, a thorough test 
should be made of every ventilating system installed on shipboard. 
By this means only are we able to check the accuracy of the rules 
and formulae upon which we base our calculations, and it is evident 
that the value of such tests tor future designs far outweighs the cost 
of making the experiments. 



THE RECORD. 33 



APPENDIX. 



Since the foregoing paper was written, the writer has been able to 
make some tests of ventilation systems which were designed and 
constructed in accordance with the principles explained in this 
paper. 

The first test made was of an " equal pressure" exhaust system. 
This system had been carefully constructed according to the rules 
laid down by its inventor, and which have been already. explained 
in this paper, and the test of same was looked forward to with con- 
siderable interest, as it was claimed for this "equal pressure" method 
that any number of louvres could be opened or closed without in- 
creasing the velocity of air drawn, through those left open. . This, 
of course, supposed the revolutions of the fan, and consequently the 
pressure of blast, to remain constant. The test was made first with 
all louvres open, the velocity of flow through each louvre being 
measured by a 3" air meter, two readings of which were taken at 
each louvre and their average result entered in the table below. 
None of the readings thus averaged varied more than ten or twelve 
feet per half minute, which was considered a remarkably good 
showing ; not only because of the liability of personal error in tak- 
ing the readings, but because difficulty was experienced at first in 
maintaining a constant speed of the fan, owing to a disarrangement of 
the electric motor by which it was driven. This caused the consid- 
erable variation of speed shown in several instances in the first part 
of the table below, but the difficulty was finally adjusted, and the 
readings from No. 6 to No. 9 were taken at nearly constant speeds. 

Readings were then taken at each louvre, beginning at No. 8, and 
the louvres closed successively, beginning with No. 9, while the 
revolutions of fan were taken simultaneously with the reading at 
each louvre. It will be noted that the revolutions of the fan in- 
creased as each louvre was closed, until, when all were closed, the 
speed reached 1005 revolutions per minute. This was apparently 
due to the fact that the resistance to the motion of the fan decreased 
as each louvre was closed, until the minimum amount was reached 

4 11 



34 THE RECORD. 

when all were closed, and the constant pressure of 76 volts which 
was maintained during this part of the test served to increase the 
speed of the fan as the resistance decreased. While, therefore, the 
velocity of flow did actually increase when a part of the louvres 
were closed, as far as the efficiency of the piping is concerned, it is 
only fair to compare the actual flow with that calculated according 
to the rules to suit the speed and pressure of blast at the time of 
each reading. This has been done in the appended table, an inspec- 
tion of which shows that the difference between the actual and cal- 
culated results varied from zero to 18 J per cent. The actual flow 
fell short of the calculated in nearly every instance, but a compari- 
son between the velocities with all louvres open and with a portion 
of them closed shows that on the whole the percentages of loss were 
not widely different, and that it made very little difference whether 
all louvres were open, or a part closed. 

When we take into consideration the fact that it is very difficult 
to construct a system of sheet-iron ducts without some slight imper- 
fections which, of themselves, would be sufficient to cause the varia- 
tion shown between the velocities of flow through the various louvres, 
the " equal pressure" system, judged by the results of this test, seems 
fairly successful. The following table shows the results in detail: ' 



THE RECORD. 



35 







© 

+3 


d 


s 


3 








3 

3 


B 


a 


o3 








a 


u 


© 


o3 

3 








h 


ft 


ft 


■* 3 «; 








© 

ft 




e 


§.2 






© 


3 

QD 


© 

s > 

. o 


3 © 

•r-l S-l 

© s 


si 

© o 

■43 > 
©n-< 


Remarks. 




> 

3 
o 


c 

o 


>r3 


©•a 


© 

§3 






o 


3 

o 


_ 3 

c3 p 


o3 3 

3 2 


11 








> 


13.3 


,2-S 


U o3 






o 


O) 


o* 


rt^ 


03 © 






fc 


ft 


<1 


o 


> 






1 


800 


480 


506 


— 15 pr. ct. 


Velocity less than calculated. 




2 


800 


430 


506 


— 15 pr. ct. 


<( << (< (i 


d 


3 


895 


610 


622 


— 2 pr. ct. 


(( (( Ci (( 


ft 
o 

00 


4 


800 


540 


556 


— 3 pr. ct. 


it tc n a 


© 


5 


800 


530 


556 


— 4J pr. ct. 


U U U (I 


3 














1—* 


6 


900 


590 


626 


— 5J pr. ct. 


U (( (C l( 


< 


7 


895 


570 


622 


— 8 pr. ct. 


t( CC (C l{ 




8 


902 


580 


627 


— 1\ pr. ct. 


l< (( t< u 




9 


906 


590 


630 


— 6 pr. ct. 


(< It u u 



8 


925 


630 


643 


7 


936 


580 


651 


6 


945 


590 


657 


5 


952 


550 


660 


4 


959 


550 


667 


3 


965 


670 


671 


2 


973 


550 


676 


1 


983 


650 


683 


9 


992 


680 


690 



2 pr. ct. 
11 pr. ct. 
10 pr. ct. 
16£ pr. ct. 
17$ pr. ct. 



18.] pr. ct. 
4 J pr. ct. 
11 pr. ct. 



No. 9 closed. 
Nos. 8 and 9 closed. 
Nos. 7, 8 and 9 closed. 
Nos. 6, 7, 8 and 9 closed. 
Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 closed. 
Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 closed. 
Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 closed. 
Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 closed. 
Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 closed, 



Revolutions of fan with \ 
all louvres closed. ) 



1005. 



36 THE RECORD. 



Blower used was a No. 4 Monogram Electric Exhauster. 

Designed velocity of air through 
main duct to suit this speed 
and pressure = 1112 ft. per 
min. 



Designed pressure J oz. 

" speed =800 revs. 
per min. 



Designed velocity through termi- 
nals = 556 ft. per min. 



" capacity = 667 cu. ft. 
per min. 

The second test made was of a supply system for a dynamo room. 
In this case it was designed to deliver a large volume of air at a ve- 
locity sufficient to keep the air vigorously agitated. The main duct 
was connected to a steam fan which was located about seventy-five 
feet away from the point of delivery in the dynamo room, and which 
was also used to supply fresh air to other portions of the ship at the 
same time. The calculations for the piping were based on the rules 
given for compensation for loss of velocity by frictional resistance, 
as explained in this paper, all bends, etc., being taken into consid- 
eration. The test was made, as before, with a 3" air meter, which 
registered the velocity of flow through the terminal openings, and 
the following shows the difference between the actual and the calcu- 
lated results : 

Actual velocity in feet per minute = 880. Calculated velocity in 
feet per minute = 864. Actual volume delivered per minute = 2502 
cu. ft. Calculated volume to be delivered per minute == 2456 cu. ft. 
Excess of actual over-calculated volume = 46 cu. ft. = nearly 2 per 
cent. 

This is considered a most excellent showing for the accuracy of 
the rules, as the piping had to be of irregular shape in a number of 
places in order to clear obstructions, and had several bends besides ; 
all of which combined to give the rules a severe test. 



" Radiography " and Its Connection with Drawings* 

By Juan de D. Tejada, Member. 

With all the possible noise that the combined papers of both the 
old and the new world are able to make through their myriads of 



THE RECORD. 37 

presses, and with the peculiar flippancy of onr century, more petu- 
lant as it grows older, we are told in broken and fascinating reports, 
and without any hesitation as to the possible conflict between fancy 
and truth, that a new discovery, " The photography of the invisi- 
ble," has or will revolutionize the scientific world. 

To begin with the title of the new discovery is the first absurdity 
we meet with, because if " photography " means sketch or tracing 
made by the light itself and it is understood that opaque bodies 
are those capable of intercepting the path of light, and opacity the 
quality, property, or state of certain bodies or substances of being 
impervious to light, then " photography through opaque bodies" is 
just exactly as the proposition to drill a hole through an iron plate 
without any perforation of the latter. 

This looks quite puzzling, still we are told by very learned persons 
and are assured by many more unlearned ones that the thing is 
perfectly feasible. 

If the definition of the new discovery were something like this : 
" A process for obtaining permanent shades by means of chemical 
radiations through substances opaque to luminous rays," then the 
conflict between the new discovery and old established truths 
would be greatly reduced. 

In photography, well defined, the luminic element, that is the 
" photos," has no radical action in the process because of the ele- 
ments out of which a solar, electric or magnesian ray is composed 
that is the thermic, luminic, and electro-chemical elements, only the 
two last named have any action whatever upon sensitized plates and 
this is accomplished by means of reactions acting upon carefully pre- 
pared surfaces for such purposes. 

There are indeed three synthetic and one analytical proof of the 
above assertion. 

The first synthetic proof is, that operating with a beam of lighl 
devoid of thermical action a perfect negative is obtained, therefore, 
heat has no action whatever in the process. Second, that operating 
with a beam of light of any color, from orange yellow to intense 
red, which are the corresponding thermical extremes of the spec- 
trum and consequently have very little, if any al all, electro-chemical 



38 THE RECORD. 

action, but the full extent of therrnieal one. it is impossible to obtain 
any result whatever upon sensitized plates. Third, without luminic 
and therrnieal action it is possible to obtain a perfect negative of any 
drawing, tracing or sketch made with good Higgin's ink. the trac- 
ing having previously been exposed to sunlight, by putting the 
drawing in a common blue-printing frame, using a sensitized plate 
in place of the helio's paper, taking care that the contact between 
the drawing and the plate is perfect as in common practice by means 
of the felt cushion and the springs, and then keeping the frame in 
the dark room for one or more days. 

It will thus be s^eii that there is no therrnieal action because the 
room is cool, nor luminic action because there is no light in the 
room. Moreover, if the drawing has been exposed to the direct 
light of the sun for some hours, many days might pass before sub- 
jecting same to the frame with equally good results. 

The theory of Beequerel sustained by some experiments to the 
end that the chemical rays are luminic rays producing chemical ac- 
tion has been condemned long ago. It is true that the rays which 
produce chemical action are reflected and retracted like luminic rays 
of equal rerlexibility. and is also true that the luminic and chemi- 
cal spectrum are interrupted by equal rays : also that substances 
which are in themselves absorbents of luminic rays absorbs also 
chemical rays of equal refraetibility. but it is necessary to bear in 
mind the difference of intensity of the chemical and luminic rays 
at the same points,, and also that if the lumhhc intensity is too fee- 
ble to make any impression in the eye the chemical action would 
undoubtedly manifest herself at the end of a given time, which 
could not have any influence whatever on the effect produced in the 
eye. 

As to the analytical proof it is well known that when chemically 
pure ultra-violet rays are once focussed, electro-chemical action is 
obtained, i. e.. cool and black, or. in other words, the photographic 
proce--. 

If. as it has been rjroved. photography is not due to the therrnieal 
nor the luminic action of the ethereal rays but to the electro-chemi- 



THE RECORD. 39 

cal action of the same, that is, of the solar rays and its analogues, 
where lays the vast fabric so flippantly trumpeted. 

Where is the capital discovery of the so-called " fourth state of 
matter," that is, radiant matter? 

Capital novelty, discovery of a new principle, there is none, and 
we have been quite surprised to read such witchcrafting literature 
with which the daily papers are stuffed, so much so that one will 
almost believe that the laws of nature are about to be reversed.* 

Important discovery, or the enunciation of new principles is, for 
instance, the "Principia" of Newton, the polarization of light, the 
inductive currents, and even " photography " itself. 

The two main facts given as new are quite old. One, the photo- 
chemical action of the Roentgen radiations, and the other, the fa- 
cility with which such radiations pierce or pass through substances 
opaque to the light, or, in other words, poor conductors of the same. 

These are the main claims of the new discovery, but we know 
from fifty years back that photography is the result of the electro- 
chemical rays of the solar spectrum and its analogues, and we have 
known long since that for magnetism and gravitation two of the 
essential and paramount functions of the universe, there are not 
opaque bodies, nor good, nor poor conductors of the corresponding 
radiations. There is in the new process electro-magnetic inhala- 
tions or effluvia which, in combination with electrical action, 
accomplish chemical reaction, and being magnetic pierce a great 
number of bodies or substances without any connection whatever 
with their opacity or translucity and transparency, and in direct 
accordance with well defined optical laws. 

What there is of partial novelty in the new process is the combi- 
nation of both laws; yet experiments and proofs are now lacking 
which may ultimately prove whether the electro-chemical spectral 
rays are capable of acting in like manner as the Roentgen rays, that 
is, to penetrate through substances optically opaque. If such were 

*In a recent letter to the writer in regard to the subject Mr. Edison states 
that "nearly all what is written in the daily papers is pure fiction." He has 
been grossly abused and misquoted quite often. 



40 THE RECORD. 

the case, then,* Bertat, Masson, Karsten, and Maser, early experi- 
menters, are entitled to a share in the process, f 

It will be utterly unnecessary to give a description of the process 
and apparatus since that is described almost everywhere, and the 
modus operandi has been repeated and illustrated time and again. 

I will, however, point out the main feature of the process. It 
consists in the function of an electric current capable of forming 
electric sparks from 3 to 4 inches long. They are named cathodic 
rays because their exit is from the cathodic terminal or negative pole 
of the generator. Strictly speaking, the source of the rays is in that 
portion of the bulb on the Crooke's tube opposite to the cathode ter- 
minal, x 

The whole apparatus consists of a Ruhmkorff coil, condenser, in- 
candescent lamp, or Crooke's tube, secondary discharger for disrup- 
tion and a plate holder. The connection to the lamp is generally 
made by a tinfoil cap cemented over the end of the bulb. In some 
of the apparatus a plate of lead having a hole in its center is situ- 
ated between the tube to act as a diaphragm. 

The two main points worthy of notice so far are the capacity of 
the radiations to penetrate through substances in different ways from 
those governing the propagation of light and heat, and the power 
of affecting and altering by fluorescence or chemical reaction in sub- 
stances favorable to one or both elements. 

It will be observed that the new discovery having above points 
as fundamental principles has a very limited field, hence has gone 
no further than to represent shades, for where the radiations pierce 
the ground of the positive plate the impression is light, and where 
they do not pierce or penetrate the ground is dark. Finally, where 
they penetrate with more or less difficulty, the ground is gray with 
lighter or darker shades. Hence in the radiography of the hand 

*See " Comptes-rendus de l'Academie des Sciences"— Paris, Vols. XV, 
XVI, XVII, and XX. 
| See ' ' Maser Images " — Paris. 
X See " Electricity and Magnetism " — Gordon. 



THE RECORD. 41 

it happens that the bones are black, the flesh without detail and 
gray, and the ground of the plate white or absolutely clear. 

Such beggarly results without practical advantages are but con- 
sequences of certain attributes lacking in the new discovery and 
which are so necessary in any reproductive art where the details 
are paramount as they give sharpness and perfection. It should be 
noticed also that as the radiations are not reflected and there is no 
contact of the object with the negative plate, it is difficult to see how 
details can ever be obtained. On the other hand, as the radiations 
are not refracted on their transmission from one to another medium all 
of the plates are taken at full size without any possible enlargement or 
reduction. The available space between the object and the tube is 
another serious objection as any increased distance from the. object 
to the tube will give a very poor image and as the radiations are 
invisible in themselves being situated in the ultra-violet scale of the 
spectrum, the process to ascertain the intensity of the current in 
connection with the fluorescent proof, which does not allow the use of 
any light whatever, is quite a blind performance lacking precision 
and accurate results. 

As to the astonishing results so lavishly promised early last year, 
we are yet in expectation. So far we have something like — 

Qp — (2p + 4p) = x 

In regard to the medical diagnostic I think "the photography of 
the invisible in the human body" will remain for many } r ears in 
knickerbockers, if it is ever raised to the place of a process exact 
and accurate. 

Possibly foreign substances in solid form might be detected in 
some parts of the human body, especially mineral and metallic 
ones, but gums, resins, cellulose, etc., will be hardly detected. 

The new discovery, however, though not wonderful nor new 
theoretically speaking, is a great advance toward the scientific 
investigation of the mysterious ether. 

We fear, however, that unless experimenters regularize and ana- 



42 THE RECORD. 

lize the Roentgen radiations in regard to catadioptrical laws of the 
electro-chemical ones, a new field is far from promising the bonanza 
much talked of in every quarter. 



Calculation of Screw Propellers* 

Translation by W. Wachsmann, Member. 

The following are the particulars of a paper read before the Ger- 
man Society of Mechanical Engineers by Mr. G. Fliege: 

Much has already been said and written on the subject of screw 
propellers, and there are many ways of determining the main dimen- 
sions; the most of them, however, all suffer more or less from the 
inconvenience that they give inaccurate results or are difficult to 
apply. 

I therefore have endeavored to set up a series of formulae, based 
on accurate data secured on trial trips, with which to determine in 
a simple, yet reliable, manner the main dimensions of a screw pro- 
peller. 
Let 
D = diameter of propeller in feet ; 
H = pitch of propeller in feet; 
A = helicoidal area in square feet ; 
A l = helicoidal area beyond 0.6 radius in square feet; 

A 

<p = —r = coefficient of fineness of blade tips ; 

t = draft of propeller in feet ; i. e. , measured from water-line to 

center of shaft; 
S = slip in per cent. ; 
7) = efficiency of propeller ; 
IHP = indicated horse-power ; 
n = number of revolutions per minute ; 
V = speed of vessel in knots per hour; 
X = immersed midship section in square feet; 

D 2 x 

4 area of screw disc 



o = 



X immersed midship section 



THE RECORD. 43 

According to the location of the screw and the number of blades, 
vessels may be classified as follows: 

1. Vessels having single-screw and four blades. 

2. Vessels having single-screw and three blades. 

3. Vessels having twin-screw, each with four blades. 

4. Vessels having twin-screw, each with three blades. 

5. Torpedo boats having single-screw and three blades. 

6. Torpedo boats having twin-screw, each with three blades 

It is generally known that water follows in the wake of a vessel, 
and that near the keel it has a greater velocity than at either side ; 
also, near the surface there is a greater volume than that below, 
which flows along with the vessel. 

Imagine the area of water, drawn along by the vessel with uni- 
form velocity, to be equal to some sectional area of the vessel. This 
area will be represented by the section-lined surfaces shown in Figs. 
1 to 6. As will be seen from Figs. 1 and 2, a single screw acts con- 
siderably more in the water drawn after the vessel than a twin- 
screw: see Fig. 3. The four-bladed propeller more than the three- 
bladed: compare Figs. 1 to 6. From this follows, that the pitch and 
useful effect, as shown in Fig. 1, is considerably more influenced by 
the water drawn after the vessel than in the propeller shown in Fig. 
3. In this respect the efficiency of three blades in a twin-screw is 
nearly equal to that of a three-bladed screw for a torpedo boat, which 
in proportion to the vessel is brought lower down: see Figs. 5 and 6. 

In designing propellers, first of all, it is necessary to settle on the 
diameter and the number of revolutions. According to experience 
the diameter must be adapted to the vessel, and the number of revo- 
lutions cannot be assumed at will, because small and high speed 
engines would not be placed in large vessels, and vice versa. As a 
starting point, the area of the screw disk is made a certain ratio of 
the immersed midship section 

D 2 7T 








<© 

* 








<<3 



N 








THE RECORD. 45 

r 0.24 to 0.36 for vessels having single-screw and four blades. 
0.30 to 0.44 for vessels having single-screw and three blades. 
0.18 to 0.24 for vessels having twin-screw, each with four 

blades. 
0.22 to 0.27 for vessels having twin-screw, each with three 

blades. 
0.62 to 0.72 torpedo boats having single-screw and three 

blades. 
0.35 to 0.45 torpedo boats having twin-screw, each with three 

blades. 



If the screw-disk area and, consequently, the diameter, have been 
approximately determined according to the above, then make H = 
1.0 to 1.8D. The greatest useful effect is obtained by making H = 
IAD; though this proportion may be varied, as it fluctuates but 
little between the limits H= 1.2 to 1.6Z). Smaller or larger pro- 
portions than these act unfavorably. 

The slip is usually taken between 10 and 20 per cent, for large 
vessels with a speed from 10 to 20 knots. As the draft, pitch-ratio, 
diameter, and vessel's speed influence the slip of the screw, these 
factors have been put together in the following formula: 

ff__ 2.717 I HXV 

d \x)x(t — 0.656) 

In this, for the present, take the following values for H : D corre- 
sponding to the speed V, 

V=S 10 12 14 16 18 20 

H:D = i:2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1,15 1.5. 

We then have for the efficiency of the screw 

- - 1Q ° — s 
V 100 



46 THE RECORD. 

If the pitch and efficiency have been assumed according to the 
above, then 

101.2617 XV 

n = — 

HXy 

or, taking the number of revolutions in round numbers, 

101.2617 XV 



H- 



nXrj 



Though the diameter has been deduced from the immersed mid- 
ship section, it will be subjected to a more accurate calculation. The 
following formula has hitherto been usually employed: 

D = K flBp- KXIHP™ 

\n 3 XfF n^xH 1 ' 5 ' 

K is a coefficient which varies from 14623 to 22422 for single- 
screws, and from 18523 to 26322 for twin-screws. To ascertain the 
diameter from this formula comparisons must be made with similar 
vessels of suitable speed to determine the proper value for K. 

There not always being sufficient data at hand, I took a series of 
propellers in use and, in the above, by varying the exponents for n 
and H, deduced similar formula which, for all screws considered, 
showed the least variation corresponding to a certain class of vessels. 
From the above formula the coefficient K was, first of all, deter- 
mined. 

The examples in the following table will show how, by changing 
the exponents for n and H, the coefficient K nearly assumes a con- 
stant value C. Taking example 1, we have 

DXn l ' 5 XH 1 - 5 22.47 X75 1 - 5 X30.5r- 5 
K ~ IHP 05 ~ ' 11500 - 5 =22948. 



or 



DXn lA XR lM 22.47 X75 1 - 4 X30.51 1 - 26 
C = ~ IHP* 5 " = ~ 11500 - 5 - = 6o68. 



THE RECORD. 47 

Ex. IHP n V D H K C 

Feet. Feet. 

1. 11500 75 19 22.474 30.512 22948 6568 

2. 3000 70 14 19.685 21.654 21213 6626 

3. 1600 70 12 14.764 20.998 20804 6509 

4. 840 100 10 12.959 12.139 18912 6553 

5. 260 70 8.5 9.842 10.498 17723 6451 

It should be noted that all values occurring in the above formula 
have been duly considered in regard to their exponents, the latter 
being varied until the greatest equality was obtained for the coeffi- 
cient C. 

The formulae thus found are the following : 

6538.5 X IHP 05 ( for vessels having single-screw and four 

D = n 1.4 XjfZ 1.26 \ b l adeg> 

{for vessels having single-screw and 
three blades, 
for vessels having twin-screw, each with 
four blades. 
{for vessels having twin-screw, each with 
three blades, 
torpedo boats having single-screw and 
three blades. 

6988.6 X IHP 05 j torpedo boats having twin-screw, each 
with three blades. 



D 



D 

n 



S.6 X IHP 05 ( 

1.4 x #1.23 " \ 



(1) 



The horse-power required, and the number of revolutions to be 
attained, are not the only conditions which determine the proper 
diameter of a screw; the blade surface is an important factor. The 
following formulae for A are not based on any theoretical deduction, 
but contain in a proper compilation those main factors which influ- 
ence the surface of a screw. It would not be convct to deduce the 
screw surface from the immersed midship section, or from the screw- 
disk area, as is very often done; the screw is driven through the 
water solely by the engine power and is, therefore, only dependent 



48 THE RECORD. 

on this. The ratio H: D is also of the greatest importance, because, 
by increasing the ratio of pitch, the side projection of the screw sur- 
face increases ; consequently, it is more difficult to drive through the 
water. 

The following formula is to be used when the draft t> 11.48 feet: 



^ = §^x^ W 



In this take 



C 1 = 149.62 for vessels having single-screw and four blades. 

( for vessels having single-screw and three blades. 
1 ' I for vessels having twin-screw, each with four blades. 

( for vessels having twin-screw, each with three blades. 

1 'I torpedo boats having single-screw and three blades. 

j torpedo boats having twin screw, each with three 
C 1= 116.25 j bladeg> 

It is a well known fact that water near the surface is more easily 
set in motion than that at lower depths; therefore, the screw sur- 
face for shallow drafts must be increased to offer the same resistance 
compared to a screw working in deeper water. 

For screws working near the surface in which £< 11.48 feet, the 
following formulae hold good: 



545.9 XD I IHP ( for vessels having single-screw and ^ 

HXn \£ + 0.656 \ four blades. 
528.3 XD I IHP ( for vessels having twin-screw, each 

HXn \* + 2.624 \ with four blades. 

510.8 XD j IHP ( for vessels having twin-screw, each 
HXn \2 + 4.92 \ with three blades. 

467.9 XD I IHP c torpedo boats having single-screw 
HXn \ 1^ + 9.84 \ and three blades. 

487.4 XD \ IHP ( torpedo boats having twin-screw, 



HXn NU + 8.2 1 each with three blades. 



(3) 



THE RECORD. 49 

Formulae (1), (2), and (3) will always give good results providing 
that <p, the coefficient of fineness of blade tips, =0.475. Other con- 
ditions of course give different revolutions, so that 

0.475 Xn ... 

Occasionally it happens that the diameter may be taken greater 
or smaller than expressed by formula (1) if the draft is shallow. If 
it is desired to make the diameter greater, then the screw surface 
must be made smaller; if smaller, then the screw surface must be 
made larger, so that the same resistance is maintained as in the 
original calculated screw. Given the diameter then, for purposes of 
recalculation, let 

n = number of revolutions per minute ; 

n l = number of revolutions per minute according to formula (1); 

n 2 = number of revolutions to be substituted in formula? (2) or (3); 

x = 1.26 or 1.25, etc., the exponents for H in formula (1); 

C = 6538.5 or 6664, etc., the constants in formula (1); 

then the following relation will obtain: 

n = -!3_! ». (5) 

According to formula (1), 

14 CXIHP" 5 
DXH* 

_ log (7+0.5 log ZffP— (log D+z log H) () 

1 1.4 K J 

According to formula (5), n 2 = 2Xn — n v Substituting value n 2 for 
n in formula) (2) or (3) we have the changed diameter duo to the 
correct screw surface. If the diameter was assumed too small, and 
the screw surface became excessive, it can happen that the blades 
overlap each other. This must not occur, as the water between two 

4R 



50 THE RECORD. 

adjacent blades, near the hub, cannot escape, thereby considerably 

reducing the efficiency of the screw. By increasing the pitch and at 
the same time reducing the blade area, this objection can be reme- 
died. To attain this the following recalculation can be undertaken. 
According to formula (1) we have 



H log (7+0-5 Xlog IHP— (logP-j-:L4XlogTfc) 



(7) 



Introducing value H lt in formula (1) or (3), we receive the proper 
blade area due to the changed pitch. 

In the following table the values for IHP. V. D. H. A. t. and c 

are taken from actual propellers, and the correctness of formulae (1) 
to (6) will be verified by the fact that the calculated number of revo- 
lutions very nearly coincide with those actually performed. 

Vessels Nos. 25 and 26 are torpedo boats. The coefficient of fine- 
ness c, for the blade tips, not being ascertainable for all screws. 
consequently the number of revolutions for these could not be veri- 
fied. The calculated number of revolutions per minute, compared 
with those actually performed, show slight differences, which are 
partly due to incomplete data and the varying efficiencies of engines 
and propellers. 

The following points deserve attention in designing screw pro- 
pellers : 

To prevent air from being carried down it is necessary that the 
blade tips should work below the water line. As a general rule the 
distance of the blade tips, measured from the water line, should not 
be less than 0.451 D. The blade area near the hub contributes 
very little to the propelling effect, therefore it is given any shape 
from the tip down. As already stated, the blade tips for ocean 
steamers are given a fineness of c = 0.475: for river steamers this 
value may be increased to tp = 0.55. 

By means of centrifugal action part of the water is thrown off in 
a radial direction. To utilize this force for going ahead Hirsch gave 
the generatrix the shape of a spiral at right angles with the axis and 
an angular advance of 30°. Other designers sought to attain the 



THE RECORD. 



51 



same thing, but with the objection that such screws worked unfa- 
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if 


^ 


< 


<p 


n 1 


n 2 


n 


n 


- 


- 


- 








J^eef 


Feet. 


Sg. /eei. 


Feef. 


















1 


19.5 


12300 


22.47 


31.16 


170.07 


12.13 


0.50 


75.2 


71.8 


73.5 


69.9 


70 


1 


4 


2 


16 


6000 


21.81 


25.26 


142.42 


12.13 


0.49 


73.5 


71.5 


72.5 


70.2 


70 


1 


4 


3 


14 


3400 


19.68 


21.65 


108.28 


12.13 


0.50 


72.5 


74.5 


73.5 


69.9 


70 


1 


4 


4 


12.5 


1960 


16.73 


20.01 


76.72 


11.94 


0.49 


70.0 


75.5 


72.75 


70.5 


71 


1 


4 


5 

6 

7 


17 

18.2 

12 


7000 
8700 
1630 


21.98 
22.24 
14.76 


30.51 
29.98 
20.99 


149.62 
160.17 
67.59 


10.49 
10.49 
7.21 




63.7 
69.5 
70.4 


66.0 
75.5 
81.5 


64.85 

72.5 
75.95 




64 
70 
68.2 


1 
1 
1 


4 
4 
4 






0.53 


68 


8 


14 


3830 


18.04 


24.27 


92.46 


10.17 


0.53 


72.5 


82.5 


77.5 


69.2 


69 


1 


4 


9 


8.3 


450 


12.13 


8.53 


50.05 


9.84 


0.52 


108 


102 


105 


96 


94 


1 


4 


10 


9.5 


360 


9.51 


9.18 


35.52 


6.56 


0.465 


118 


113 


115.6 


118 


120 


1 


4 


11 


11 


840 


12.95 


12.13 


53.39 


8.85 


0.49 


99.8 


103 


101.4 


98 


97.5 


1 


4 


12 


10.5 


180 


5.57 


8.53 


14.53 


2.95 


0.475 


145 


174 


159.5 


159.5 


160 


1 


4 


13 


13.23 


2540 


17.06 


20.99 


88.26 


12.13 


0.475 


74.5 


71 


72.75 


72.75 


72 


1 


4 


14 


8.25 


260 


9.84 


10.49 


37.19 


6.72 


0.46 


91.1 


81.5 


86.3 


89 


89 


1 


4 


15 


9 


670 


14.43 


13.12 


55.97 


10.17 


0.47 


79.5 


70.5 


75 


75.2 


75 


1 


4 


1G 


8.25 


50 


3.93 


5.24 


6.75 


2.13 


0.51 


188 


262 


225 


210 


216 


1 


4 


17 


10.5 


1850 


16.01 


18.99 


77.99 


13.12 


0.48 


77.9 


69.7 


73.8 


7;> 


73 


1 


4 


18 


13.8 


2640 


17.78 


17.29 


58.77 


10.82 


0.49 


90 


95 


92.5 


89.5 


89 


2 


4 


19 


21.5 


4500 


14.76 


22.63 


53.3!) 


9.84 


0.16 


102 


109 


105.5 


108.5 


L08.5 


2 


1 


20 


15 


2200 


13.12 


14.76 


39.82 


9.84 


0.50 


125 


138 


131.5 


L24.5 


124 


2 


3 


2] 


19.6 


6900 


18.50 


25.59 


79.97 


12.79 




ill) 


91.8 


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91 


2 


3 


22 


20.4 


7600 


19.02 


26.90 


86.11 


12.13 


0.17 


88 


88.5 


88.25 


89 


89 


2 


3 


23 


11 


320 


6.69 


8.33 


14.53 


3.60 


0.50 


171 


176 


17:!..") 


161 


KiO 


2 


3 


21 


L9.76 


8800 


19.5S 


29.98 


L02.25 


12.46 


0.19 


82 


71 


78 


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7:..:» 


2 


3 


25 


19.5 


2200 


9.18 


8.85 


20.62 


8.20 


0.51 


265 


285 


1'7.~> 


•_>:,( i 


254 


2 


3 


26 


21.5 


1000 


5.38 


6.88 


9.36 


3.93 




351 


338 


311 




340 


1 


3 











Iii modern practice the generatrix intersects the axis and forms 
an angle fl with a Line at right angles to Hie axis; see Fig. 1 1. This 

gives good results when going ahead, and also good enough when 



52 



THE RECORD. 



backing*. This angle varies from 5° to 15° and, according to the 
number of revolutions, may be taken at 

j9 = 0.75Xi n. 
In tugboats and vessels which do much maneuvering the genera- 
trix is at right angles to the axis. 

When calculating propellers with expanding pitches take average 
one measured at 0.7 radius. Let H 2 be the pitch at hub, H 3 the 
pitch'atjtip. Then 

jy __ _ and H, = — 2 . 



Fz«. X 




JFujs. 8tol0. 



st^fc 



L^^L 




Lu*i&*&- 



In general a screw projDeller is to be compared to a turbine. The 
blades should touch the water without impact. The natural shape 



THE RECORD. 53 

of the blade sections are already well adapted to fulfill this claim ; 
see Figs. 7 to 11. 

If, for example, a section as shown in Fig. 7 is driven through 
the water in the direction of the arrow, the action is about the same 
as if it were done by a thin plate bent according to the dotted line 
ab in center of section. The leaving edge of the back of the blade 
produces a strong suction, consequently it considerably retards the 
blade in its motion. To prevent this the blade sections must be 
made so that the water can readily flow off, i. e., the leaving edge 
must be slightly bent backwards, the center line ab assuming the 
shape of a parabola. 

Figs. 8 to 10 represent blade sections taken at the tip, center, and 
near the hub. To avoid impact with the water the pitch of the cen- 
tral lines at the entering edge should be 

rr 101.26177 
ti = ; 

n 

At the leaving edge they must be made to correspond to twice the 
slip, i. e., 

101.2617 V 



H = 



n(2y — l) 



Propeller blades are either cast or bolted to the boss; the material 
is usually cast iron, bronze, or cast steel: see Figs. 11 to 13. 

The blades are secured by bolts — from 6 to 10 in number — having 
bronze nuts, the latter being secured by a small set screw. The area 

d 2 - d 2 - 

of bolts may be taken at 4 for a four-bladed screw, and 4 for a 



threc-bladed screw. 

All proportional dimensions given in the figures arc lor cast iron 
and are based on the diameter of the shaft d= 1,000. For bronze 
propellers, multiply the proportional dimensions by 0.85; and for 
cast steel by 0.7. 



Fty 11 




A~o.f-?s*A 




\*-*--L-4z600 4 



Erratum : — The above should read A, = 0.475 X A 






56 THE RECORD. 

The diameter of the boss for a four-bladed screw may be taken at 
3.4 to 3.5 Xd; for a three or two-bladed screw 3Xd The boss is 
fitted conically to the shaft and tightly secured by a nut. To trans- 
mit the turning moment one or two feathers are let into the conical 
part of the shaft. The conicity, referred to the diameter of the shaft, 
should not be less than 1:12, otherwise the boss cannot be removed 
without much labor; it is generally about 1 : 10. 

The weight of a propeller can only be approximately expressed 
by a formula; it consists of the weight of the boss and that of the 
blades. 
Let 

A = helicoidal area of blades in square feet ; 

S = thickness of blade measured near the hub in feet ; 

y = specific gravity of material. 

Then we have as the weight of the propeller 

Q = r XAX^. 

In case the blades are made detachable, add flange to this. 

If blades and boss are cast together, then the weight (Q x ) may be 
taken at 0.2 to 0.25 Q; if blades are detachable, then take weight 
(Q u ) at 0.3 to 0.35 Q. 

In conclusion, a number of examples are given to show how the 
foregoing formulae are to be applied. 

Example 1. — Calculate a propeller for a twin-screw steamer hav- 
ing two engines, each 7,0007//P. 

Given: IHP = 7,000, V= 19 knots, t = 12.14 feet, X = 1,163.5 
square feet, n = 85, d = 0.245, H:D = 1.45. 

Then 

2.717 lH~ ~V~ 2.717 / W 171 . 

100 — £ 100 — 17 

v- ioo ~" ioo -°- 83 - 



THE RECORD. 57 

101.261 XV 101.261X19 

H= = QRwngo = 27.23 feet. 

nXy 85X0.83 

6814.4 XIHP 5 _ 6814.4 X7000 - 5 _ 
D = n l -±xH U2i = 85 1 - 4 X27.23 1 - 24 = 18 - 865 feet. 



The draft of the propeller being greater than 11.48 feet, the area 
of the blades will be determined according to formula (2): 

128.09 XD / 128.09X18.865 . 

A = HXn X VIHP = 27.23X85 ^ 7000 = 87 ' 405 s * ft ' 

The propeller as built was given the following dimensions': D = 
19.02 feet, H= 27.23 feet, A = 86.11 square feet, cp = 0.475. 

Example 2. — Calculate a propeller for a single-screw steamer. 

Given: IHP= 840, 7= 10.8 knots, * = 8.858 feet, X = 306.779 
square feet, £ = 0.43, n = 97.5, iJ: D = 1.25 according to the table, 
^ = 0.49. 

We have 
„ 2.717 Iff F~ 2.717 L 9r v 10.8 ■ , 



100 — £ 100 — 8 

57 - 100 - xoo -°- 92 - 



101.261X7 101.261X10.8 101QQ ., 
H== ~Hxf = 97.5X0.92 = 12 ' 139 feet 



As the blades should have a fineness of <p = 0.49, the number of 
volutions 
(l)aiid (2). 



49 

revolutions must be inserted according to the ratio — in formulae 

0.4 / f) 



58 THE RECORD. 

Accordingly we have 

0.49X97.5 
*i=-0475- = 100 - 5 ' 

6538.5 XlHP 05 6538.5 X840 - 5 

D = V- 4 XF- 26 = 100.5 1 - 4 X12.139 1 - 26 = 12 " 84 feet 

The draft of the propeller being less than 11.48 feet, formula (3) 
is to be used for calculating the area of the blades : 



545.9 XD IHP 545.9X12.84 840 

A= HXn X \ £ + 0.656 = 12.139 X 100.5 X \9^I = 54sq - ft . 

The propeller was given the following dimensions: D = 12.96 
feet, H= 12.139, A = 53.29 square feet, <p = 0.49. 

Example 3. — How many revolutions will the engine of a single- 
screw steamer make which develops 260 IHP? 

Given: D =9.84 feet, H= 10.5 feet, A = 37.19 square feet, <p = 
0.46, t = 6.725 feet. 

According to formula (6) we have 

log 6538.54-0.5 Xlog IHP— (log D + 1.26xlog H) 
n, = 

3.8154781+0.5X2.4149733 — (0.9931142 + 1.26x1.0211066) 
= 1.4 

= 91.1. 



According to formula (3) we have 

HXA *\ t + 0.656 = 10.5X37.19 ^\iM 
And according to formula (5) 



545.9 XD \ IHP 545.9X9.84 (260 

n o = rr., a Xa — — — = ia = wo>7 -in X\Ur = 81.5. 



n "+w, 91.1+81.5 

n = - L 7 H = 1 = 86.3. 



THE RECORD. 59 

According to formula (4) 

0.475 Xn 0.475X86.3 



<p 0.46 



= 89. 



This number corresponds with the number of revolutions actually 
performed, as will be seen in the table opposite No. 14. 

The immersed midship section % = 266.95 square feet, and the 

D 2 - 

propeller disk area —r- = 76.102 square feet, consequently we have 

76.102 

o = nnn qz =0.285 and the slip 



2.717 \H V 2.717 ho.5 8 

-g\D X t — 0.656 ~0.285\j 



8= "VaI^ X *.- 0.656 " 0.285\^84 X 6Md = 10 ' 6 P er ct 



The presumable velocity V= 8 was introduced in the latter form 
ulse. Having favorable weather the speed would be at least 

rr nXHXy 89Xl0.5x0.894 n i 

V = 101.261 = 101.261 =8.25 knots. 

Example 4. — Calculate the surface of a screw propeller for a light 
passenger steamer. 

Given: IHP = 180, V= 10.5 knots, t = 2.952 feet, X = 91.624 
square feet, D = 5.57 feet, o = 0.27, n = 160, iJ:7> = 1.25, <p = 
0.475. 

Then 

2.717 \h~ ~V~ 2.717 M.25X10.5 



S 



a-717 H V _ 2/717 1.25X10.5 

d ^n X J-0.656 " = 0.27 \ — 23T" = 24 pei l ' ont 



100 — S 100 — 24 

? = ~To^= ioo =076 - 



tt 101.261x7 101.261X10.5 
nX?? 160X0.76 



60 THE RECORD. 

The diameter being already limited by the shallow draft of the 
vessel, the number of revolutions will have to be first determined 
from formula (6): 

log 6538.5 + 0.5 Xlog IHP— (log D + 1.26xlog H) 
n, = 



1.4 

log 6538.5 + 0.5 Xlog 180— (log 5.57 + 1.26 Xlog 8.53) 



145. 



~~ 1.4 

The number of revolutions to be introduced in formula (3) will 



be 
consequently 



n 2 =2n — 7^=2X160 — 145 = 175, 



545.9 X J> 1 IHP _ 545.9X5.57 I 180 

A ~ HXn 2 \t +0.656 " 8.53X1.75 \ 2.952 + 0.656 

= 14.2 square feet. 

The propeller as actually built and the one calculated are iden- 
tical. 



Advance in Yachts and Yachting During the Past Yean 

By A. B. Cassidy, Naval Architect, Member of Council. 

In this rapid age, speed seems to be the one requirement. This 
is particularly the case among the classes of small yachts. In the 
past year, everything has been sacrificed to speed. 

The special classes having developed into mere racing machines. 

The half-rater or 15-foot class, which it was thought at one time 
would be composed of good comfortable sailing boats, has nothing 
whatever to commend for beauty or comfort. The success of the 
Question in 1895 seems to have directed minds of all designers 
toward the scow type of boat. 

At the competition of Seawanhaka Yacht Club, June 22, 23 and 



THE RECORD. 61 

24, 1896, of the 27 competitors for the honor of defending the chal- 
lenge cup of that club, 12 were of the scow type. The original 
Question was more nearly a box than a boat ; a considerable crown 
to the deck, while the bottom had the same shape, and the sides 
were plumb. In the fore and aft direction the bottom , had quite a 
round up, so that the boat measured at the water line 14 ft. 5 in., 
and 24 ft. over all, and a sail area of 225 sq. ft. There was no cock- 
pit, the skipper and crew being obliged to lie flat on deck, and as 
the uniform consisted of an undershirt and a pair of bathing trunks 
or an old pair of trousers, the water and spray which came on deck 
was not heeded. This original craft was slightly modified in the 
Paprika, one of the starters in the trial races of 1896. 

The successful boat, the El Heirie, of the trial races was a cross 
between the scow and a ship-shaped boat. The challenger, Glen- 
cairn, was of the same order. Both challenger and defender were 
mere racing machines, while still having a rating of 15 feet, the 
water line had been shortened and sail area increased over the 
earlier boats, and the hull correspondingly lightened. 

The challenger was made shorter at the water line and had more 
sail than the defender, which was perfectly proper under the rating 

i i . i • ,i length on L. W. L. 4- V S. A. riT , . ■, 
rule, which is the ° ! This rule as 

2 

has been demonstrated in many cases does not form a good basis 
for equalization of the merits of different boats. 

The El Heirie was defeated in three straight races by the Canadian 
boat Glencairn. The dimensions of these boats were: 

El Heirie. Glencairn. 

Length over all 23' 3" 23' 6 " 

Length on W. L 14' 4" 12' .075" 

Beam at deck 5' 6" 6' 3" 

Beam at water line 5' 10" 4' 10J" 

Draft with center board... 5' 0" 5' 0" 

Draft without board — — 

Sail area sq. ft 240 300 

Rating 14.93' 



62 THE RECORD. 

All of the races were in very light weather. The Canadian won 
fairly under the rale, but it was not a straight out-and-out test of 
the form of boats. The question developed with this class is: 
Which will take the most risk of capsizing? Under the rule, a 
small water line, or a small boat, can be given a very large pro- 
portionate sail area, which is a decided advantage in a light breeze. 
In heavy winds, the small boat must reef or take the chances of a 
capsize. 

There can be no question but this size, 15-footer or half-rater, is a 
popular size. At least six clubs during the past season had a fleet 
of this class. In most instances the boats were built from one design, 
which brought the trial down to a question of skill in seamanship. 
The cost of the 15-footers competing in the trial races ranged from 
$150 to $1,200; the Ethelwyn, the champion of 1895, cost $600. 

The one-design idea was carried on a larger scale to the 30-foot 
class, a dozen being built by Herreschoff. These boats have a sail 
area of about 1,000 square feet. 

Length of water line 30 r 

Length over all, about 42' 

Draft, exclusive of center board, about........ 7' 2" 

Cost of each, about $3,000 

When this class was established it was intended as a test of the 
seamanship of the owners, but it later merged into a test of the skill 
of the paid skipper, assisted by the paid hand, the owner and a few 
amateurs. Three paid hands are allowed on each yacht. This 
class, while it afforded some amusement to the wealthy yacht owner, 
who could cruise in a big yacht and sail in the toy yacht at different 
ports, are extravagant playthings. The boats were barely habitable 
for the paid hand and are not good, comfortable all-round boats. 

Probably the best class of small yacht that has yet been established 
are the knockabouts. This class has continued to be popular in 
Eastern waters. The first boat of this type was launched in 1892 
and the Knockabout Association was formed in 1894. The asso- 
ciation established the definition and limitations as follows: 

"A knockabout boat is a seaworthy boat (not to include fin keels) 



THE RECORD. 63 

decked or half-decked, of fair accommodations, rigged simply, 
without bowsprit, and with only mainsail and one headsail. ■ 

"The 1. w. 1. length shall not exceed twenty-one feet. 

"The beam at the 1. w. 1. shall be at least seven and not more 
than eight feet. 

"The free board shall be not less than twenty inches. 

"The forward side of the mast at the deck shall be not less than 
five feet from the forward end of the 1. w. 1. 

"The planking, including deck, shall be not less than three- 
quarters of an inch thick, finished. 

"The frames shall be not less than one inch square, and spaced 
not more than twelve inches on centers. 

"The deadwood shall be filled in. 

"The rudder shall be hung on stern post. 

"The outside ballast shall be not less than thirty-five hundred 
pounds. 

"The limits of the free board, beam, planking, frames, deadwood, 
rudder, and place of mast shall not exclude any existing knock- 
about boats which otherwise come within the restrictions. 

"The actual sail area shall be not over five hundred square feet, 
not over four hundred square feet of which shall be in the mainsail. 
The inspector shall be provided with a correct sail plan of any boat 
to be measured, and previous to measurement the owner shall 
cause distinguishing marks, satisfactory to the inspector, to be 
placed on the spars as follows: On the mast at the tack and at the 
throat of the mainsail ; on the boom at the clew of the mainsail ; 
on the gaff at the peak of the mainsail. No part of the mainsail 
shall be allowed to extend beyond these marks. The marks shall be 
black bands painted around the spars in a manner satisfactory to the 
inspector. The lower and inner edges of the bands shall be the 
limits of the sail. ' The area of the jib shall be considered to be the 
area of the forward triangle; the product of one-hall' the distance 
of the attachment of the tack to the stein, to the forward side of the 
mast at the tack mark of the mainsail, multiplied by the distance 
from the upper edge of the said tack mark to the bottom of the jib 



64 THE RECORD. 

halyards block. Only mainsail and working jib shall be allowed, 
but a storm jib may be substituted for the working jib." 
The cost of this class of boats, ranges from $1,000 to. $1,500. 
While there has been no race for the American cup, three inter- 
national races have taken place; the first for the Seawanhaka half- 
rater cup, which as previously stated was won by the Canadian 
yacht, Glencairn. The second, while not for an International trophy, 
was on the lakes open to all, was won by an American boat on a 
fluke, the Vesper, owned and sailed by Mr. Paul Butler, the first 
boat having committed an error in fouling on rounding the mark. 
The third race, the Canada- Vancedor race, was won by the Canada. 
This yacht was designed by Fife, frames bent and set up in Scot- 
land; taken apart and shipped to Canada, where the yacht was 
built. She is an up-to-date yacht, and as winner of the first race, 
showed that the Canadians were not hide-bound, but willing to take 
advantage of a rule which would enable them to produce a winner. 
The Vancedor was designed by Pockel, and built by the Racine Boat 
Manufacturing Co., at Racine, Wis. 

Where the length and sail rule is used, there is a chance which 
will always be taken advantage of, i. e., increasing the proportion of 
sail to displacement by taking advantage of all existing methods, 
light metals, and devices for producing a light hull, and skimping 
the size of hull to favor the sail plan. In this way the Canadians 
beat us at our own game, as will be noted by the statement of 
dimensions of these yachts: 

Vancedor. Canada. 

Length over all 65' 54' 

Length on 1. w. 1 43' 37.94' 

Beam 12' 1" 11' 

Draft 10' 8' 

Sail area 2,265 sq. ft, 2,162 sq. ft. 

Racing length 45.33' 41.78' 

Prior to the races of the Puritan and Genesta our main reliance 
for racing yachts was the shoal wide skinning dish with an immense 



THE RECORD. 65 

sail spread. Shifting ballast or a large crew were relied upon to 
keep the vessel from capsizing. In England the yachts were of the 
opposite type, heavy, deep, and comfortable cruisers, with a moderate 
sail spread. 

The Puritan had a displacement of 107 tons and sail spread by 
New York club rule of 7,982 sq. ft. The Genesta a displacement of 
141 tons and sail spread of 7,387 sq. ft. 

Since the above races the English designers have been skinning 
the weight of hull, at same time increasing the sail area, and one or 
two instances might be noted. 

The German Emperor's 40-rater was so badly strained in a cruise 
in the North Sea as to be condemned for further use, while the 
Niagara weathered the same gale without mishap. The Aisla was 
also badly strained in a trip from England to France to attend the 
races at Nice, but was strengthened on her return to England. 

The existing rules for rating do not give a fair comparison of the 
merits of the design. It has generated more into a question of pluck, 
or it might be classed foolhardiness of the owner and skipper. 

As noted in the 15-foot class, particularly the champion, the hull 
was skrimped in length and beam to save weight and to increase the 
sail area, so also the fin keel monstrosity has been devised by de- 
signers to get around the rules with advantage to the owner. The 
fin keel type has brought out a class of feather-weight 'hulls, with 
lead mine, hung thereto at a great depth, and an enormous sail 
spread in proportion to size of hull. 

When the knockabout class was started in Boston, it was hoped 
to keep the fin keels out by the requirement of habitability or suffi- 
cient room for a couple of people to sleep; but this, in the first two 
years, was overreached and the classification had to be changed. 
Again, in the 21-foot and 34-foot class of the Larchmont Yacht Club, 
it was thought fin keels were taxed, in the 34-foot class particularly, 
which was started to make the rule more severe against the I'm keel, 
the rule beinir : 



T/sail area + L. W. L. 135— C 

2 \ 100 

5| It 



66 THE RECORD. 

The latter part of the rule being the stab at the fin keels. G the 
coefficient of midship section, thus placing a direct tax upon the 
area of the midship frame if the coefficient is less than 35. 

The ingenuity of designers overcame the restrictions imposed, and 
now in framing rules for rating it has again been the object to stop 
owners from sounding the deep with their keels. 

The new rules adopted by the New York and Larchmont Yacht 
Clubs, and the Yacht Racing Union of Long Island Sound, places 
a limit on draft, as in the following table : 

■• The maximum draft of any yacht, exclusive of centerboard, 
when in racing trim, shall not exceed that specified for her class in 
the following table, except as hereinafter mentioned: but these limits 
shall not apply to any yacht launched prior to November 1. 1896. 
when racing in the class in which she was raced prior to that time. 
This exemption, however, shall not be so construed as to permit the 
increase of the draft of such a vessel beyond that allowed for her 
class. 

Schooners. 

First class, no draft limit. 
95-foot class. 14 feet draft. 
85-foot class, 13 feet draft. 
75-foot class. 12 feet draft. 
65-foot class, lift draft. 

Sloops, Cutters, and Yawls. 

First class, no draft limit. 
70-foot class. 13 feet draft. 
6Moot class. 11.5 feet draft. 
51-foot class. 1<"».25 feet draft. 
43-foot class. 9 feet draft. 
36-foot class. 8 feet draft. 
30-foot class. 7 feet draft. 
25-foot class. 6 feet draft. 
2i">-foot class. 5 feet draft. 
15-foot class. 4 feet draft. 



THE RECORD. 67 



Catboats. 



30-foot class, 7 feet draft. 
25-foot class, 6 feet draft. 
20-foot class, 5 feet draft. 
15-foot class, 4 feet draft. 

" Should a yacht's draft exceed that specified for a given class the 
amount of excess shall, in computing her measurement for racing 
length, be multiplied by two and added to the length of the 1. w. 1., 
provided, however, that in no case this excess be more than 10 per 
cent, of the draft specified for the respective class. On all yachts 
launched after November 1, 1896, there shall be placed upon the 
hull, and immediately over the point of greatest draft, a metal plate 
or other distinct mark. Such mark shall be placed above the 1. w. 1. 
and within six inches of it, and the owner shall furnish to the re- 
gatta committee, if required, a certificate of the vessel's draft to such 
mark, signed by himself, the designer or builder of the yacht." 

The new rules of these clubs also limit the number of men to be 
carried in each class. 

" The total number of persons on board a yacht shall not exceed 
the allowance in the following schedule: 

Schooners. 

First class, one person to every 2 feet of r. 1., or fraction 

thereof. 
90-foot class, 35 persons. 
85-foot class, 30 persons. 
75-foot class, 25 persons. 
65-foot class, 20 persons. 

Sloops, Cutters, and Yawls. 

First class, three persons to every 5 feet of r. 1., or fraction 

thereof. 
70-foot class, 20 persons. 
60-foot class, 15 persons. 
51-foot class, 12 persons. 



68 THE RECORD. 

43-foot class, 9 persons. 
36-foot class, 7 persons. 
30-foot class, 5 persons. 
25-foot class, 4 persons. 
20-foot class, 3 persons. 
15-foot class, 2 persons. 

These changes tend to make a race test of design. 

It was the aim of the framers of the new rules to strike a mean 
draft between the extreme limit of the fin keels and the centerboards, 
and to give some of the older boats a chance against new creations. 
The Emerald, the crack schooner of '94 and '95, was outclassed by 
the Colonia, having 16-foot draft and a centerboard. It is reported 
that the Emerald is to have her draft increased to the limit of the 
new rule, 14 feet, and sail area slightly increased, this will keep up 
the fight between these two cracks during the next season. It is also 
rumored that the Vigilant will also be altered into a schooner and 
added to this class. 

While the racers attract considerable attention the cruisers are the 
most popular. Of the large schooners such yachts as the Wanderer, 
Brunhilde, Fleur-de-Lis, Dauntless, Coronet, Gitana, Intrepid, Iroquois, 
and Yampa, have been seen in many parts of the world. 

Several of the pilot boats, having been replaced by a steamer, have 
been sold, and are to be used as cruising yachts. 

Probably the most popular of the cruising yachts are the smaller 
ones; sloops of about 25 to 40 feet, where the owner, with a few 
friends, gets very much enjoyment and benefit from a few week's trip 
along shore at comparatively small expense, and without the worry 
and excitement of a racing yacht. 

Several notable additions were made to the fleet of steam yachts 
during the past year. Probably the largest and best looking was the 
Sovereign, built by John N. Bobbins & Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. The 
Sovereign is a | twin-screw steam yacht. Length over all, 251 feet 6 
inches; length at water line, 212 feet; extreme breadth, 28 feet; 
draft, L 12 feet, j Motivejpower consists of two Babcox & Wilcox boilers, 



THE RECORD. 69 

two engines with cylinders 15, 24, and 39 inches, by 20-inch 
stroke of piston, propellers 8 feet in diameter. 

The Peregrine, Illawarra, Josephine, Kanawha, Hiawatha, Giralda, 
and Pathfinder, were also fine additions to the steam fleet. A great 
number of small steam yachts were built. 

The tendency is to go by steam; the big comfortable cruising craft 
are fast being dropped, either relegated to the trade or broken up. 
On the last cruise of the New York Yacht Club there were 108 
steamers with the fleet at Newport, with 55 schooners, 51 sloops and 
cutters. Steam, naphtha, and electricity are also replacing the small 
sailing yachts. We want a fair amount of speed, even in our recrea- 
tions. 

It is particularly pleasant if a person has but a limited time for 
recreation, to be able to enjoy the exhilarating effects of a few hours 
on the water, and to know with a certainty that he can meet his 
appointments by aid of the known speed of his power boat. In 
this way a great many business men, after the cares of the day, can 
spend the evening at their summer homes, and return in the 
morning refreshed by the outing, better able to meet the cares of 
the day. 

There can be no question but the sailing craft is the most enjoy- 
able when there is a breeze, but if you must be at a stated point at 
certain time, you must use other power than sails. 

The many forms of steam, and naphtha launches render the cost 
comparatively low. Electricity is gaining a considerable place 
among the power launches; the most notable addition to this Hoot 
is the electric yacht of Mr. John J. Astor, the Utopian: 

Length over all 72 feet. 

Beam 12 feet. 

Draft 4 feet. 

Twin screws are driven by two Riker electric motors of 25 horse 
power each, the storage battery consisting of 480 cells. The yachl 
was launched at Nyack-on-the-Hudson, September 10, L896. 

The small steam, naphtha or electric boat is particularly adapted 



70 THE EECORD. 



to inland water where it is a rare thing to find a good sailing breeze 
after business hours. This is particularly the case with our own 
city, and the power boat is gaining in numbers each season. 

In preparing this article, the writer desires to give due credit to 
the excellent accounts of yachts and yachting which, from time to 
time, have appeared in the New York Herald, Forest and Stream, 
Yachting, and the Rudder, from each of which some quotations 
have been made. 



Slow vs. Fast Rotative Speeds for Steam Engines, and a 
Description of a New Liberating Valve Gear. 

By A. Edward Rhodes, Member. 

The regulation of the speed of steam engines by the automatic 
variation of the point of cut-off has a decided advantage, in respect 
to economy, over the method of throttling from any point of cut-off 
whatever, both theoretically and practically. When to this there is 
added the feature of regulation at the point of admission to the 
cylinder, and, as in the liberating valve gear system, a constant 
steam-valve lead, a constant compression, an independent exhaust, 
and a quick and full opening and closing of the valve, it is no 
wonder that the system of automatic variable expansion, as operated 
by the detachable or liberating valve gear, should have come, as it 
has done, into almost universal use on stationary steam engines, 
which aim at economy. 

From the time of Mr. Sickles' invention of the liberating valve 
gear, or trip cut-off, as it is sometimes called, and which invention 
was the foundation of the present liberating system in its many 
forms, there has been, I believe, no other subject which has called 
the versatile American ingenuity into such a remarkable state of 
activity as the desire to improve, or rather the demand for improve- 
ments upon the liberating system of Mr. Sickles, among whom was 
the late Mr. George H. Corliss, whose success has caused many per- 



THE RECORD. 71 

sons to believe that he, and not Mr. Sickles, was the original inventor 
of the liberating valve gear system, which system is to-day prac- 
tically as Mr. Corliss left it a number of years ago ; that is, with the 
small diameter of cylinder, the long stroke and slow rotative speed, 
and with the consequent losses in economy of steam, as will be 
shown later. While all other forms of steam engines whose regula- 
tion is effected by throttling, or by the positive motion variable cut- 
off valve gear have been gradually changing to what is now spoken 
of as the modern high-speed engine, in which the bore of the 
cylinder is frequently equal to the stroke, and in some instances (of 
the smaller powers) the bore is slightly larger than the stroke, and 
the number of revolutions per minute is as many as the construc- 
tion of the engine will permit. 

The questions will naturally arise: Why this change in design? 
What are the advantages of the high rotative speed short stroke 
engines over the old-fashioned slow rotative speed long stroke 
engine? 

Almost all steam engine builders advocate a high rotative speed, 
each one, however, condemning very strongly such speeds as are 
above that to which he finds himself limited. 

I might say that the only engine builder who will not admit the 
many advantages of a high rotative speed is the builders of liberat- 
ing valve gear engines, the reason for which is: That up to the 
present time no liberating valve gear has been placed on the market 
that will work satisfactory at over, say, 100 turns per minute. 

The following advantages of a high rotative speed are, for the 
most part, very evident: 

First. The small size of the engine. A given power is obtained 
in a much smaller space. This is always a convenience and an 
economy in a greater or less degree, and often an absolute 1 necessity. 
Combine with this the reduced cost of manufacture, of transporta- 
tion and of handling, the smaller and, therefore, cheaper founda- 
tion, and the absolute rigidity of bed, connecting rod and crank 
shaft, which is so easily obtained in the short-stroke engine and 
almost impossible to obtain in the long-stroke engine. 



72 THE RECORD. 

Second. The small size of fly wheel or belt pulley. Here the 
advantage is greatly in favor of the high speed-engine, because 
greater uniformity of motion is maintained and a more rapid 
velocity is imparted to the belt by pulleys of, generally, not more 
than one-half the size of the slow rotative speed engine fly wheel. 
Take, for example, a short stroke engine making 140 revolutions 
per minute, with a fly wheel or pulley 12 feet in diameter, and a 
Corliss engine to give the same power and making 50 revolutions 
per minute with a fly wheel 24 feet in diameter. Without taking 
into consideration the equalizing action of the reciprocating parts of 
the engine which in the high speed-engine is much greater than in 
the slow speed-engine, the smaller fly wheel has in itself two and a 
half times the regulating efficiency of the large one. 

At the same time the smaller pulley imparts to the belt forty per 
cent greater velocity than the larger one does. In fact, a pulley 
only nine feet in diameter has slightly the advantage of a twenty- 
four foot one, in the two cases mentioned, both in regulating power 
and in velocity of belt. This reduced size of fly-wheel also con- 
tributes to diminish very much, both in length and height, the 
space occupied by the engine. 

Third. A closer approach to uniform rotation under a constant 
load. It is impossible for any engine running at a slow speed to 
give the steady motion that is given by the same engine running at 
a high speed. In running the high speed engine appears to have 
no dead centers. This can be proven by watching the incandescent 
lights in an electric lighting station, it will be found that the revo- 
lutions of a slow speed engine can easily be counted by the fluctu- 
ations of the lights each time the engine passes over the center, 
while on the other hand, the high speed engine makes no percep- 
tible change in the lights. It is also a well-known fact that an 
incandescent lamp will burn longer, if the dynamo is run by a high 
speed engine, than if it, the dynamo, is run by a slow speed engine. 
This is because of the variation of the speed of the engine as it 
passes over the center. Right here is one of the reasons why the 
electric lighting stations are using the higher speed engines, to the 



THE RECORD. 73 

almost complete exclusion of the slow speed liberating valve gear 
engine. 

The explanation of the aforesaid difference in uniform rotation 
lies in the enormously increased power of the fly-wheel, combined 
with the increased equalizing action of the reciprocating parts of 
the engine. 

Fourth. The greater convenience in the transmission of power. 
This can hardly be overestimated, it means: First, a shorter par- 
allel belt, and the saving of the additional space required by a long 
converging one; second, the avoidance of an intermediate line of 
shafting in cases where speed has to be got up ; third, where gearing 
has to be used, a small driving wheel instead of a large one ; fourth, 
in other cases, small shafts and pulleys, instead of large ones. 

Fifth. Again, in other cases, high rotative speed permits the 
engine shaft to be connected to the driven machine or shafting 
without the use of either gears or belts. 

We now come to the economical use of steam. 

Economy of steam depends upon a great variety of conditions. 
One of these the high speed engine has the exclusive possession 
of, because the great loss of heat in the cylinder, is the condensation 
of the entering steam upon the surfaces which have just been 
chilled by the re-evaporation of the water formed by the previous 
condensation, and that on a given extent of surface, and under 
given alternations of temperature, a fixed amount of condensation 
and subsequent re-evaporation must go on in a given time. Hence 
it follows that the greater weight, or amount of steam worked 
through a cylinder per minute, the less will be the percentage of 
loss, when the condensation comes to be divided by the whole 
quantity. As proof of the proposition, it has been found easy to 
condense one-half of the entering steam, or indeed any proportion 
of it as maybe desired, by running slow enough; on the other hand, 
high speed means economy. 

Again, in a high speed engine superheating is more efficient, and 
a less degree of it is required. This is obvious, since to prevenl a 
given condensation and consequent re-evaporation, it is necessary to 



74 THE RECORD. 

bring into the cylinder a given amount of superheat per minute, 
and, as the weight of the steam brought in increases with the speed, 
the degree to which its temperature must be raised, in order to do 
this, diminishes in the same proportion. The proof of this fact* 
also, is obtained by running an engine very slowly, when no 
amount of superheating will prevent condensation, which conden- 
sation increases as the speed, or number of revolutions per minute 
is reduced. 

• The economy of high speed over slow speed is still further shown 
in compound and triple compound expansion engines, but to go into 
the various advantages of compounding would be to make this ar- 
ticle too lengthy. 

Now, after having shown that it is more economical to use fast 
than slow rotative speeds for steam engines, I believe that T can say, 
without fear of being contradicted, that all things being equal, such 
as diameter of cylinder, length of stroke, number of revolutions, etc., 
that the liberating system is superior to any other known valve gear 
system. You might ask why don't the builders of liberating valve 
gear engines adapt their engines to such rotative speeds as have been 
proven by practice to be the best? 

The reason is very plainly shown by Fig. 1, which illustrates the 
principle on which all liberating valve-gears are constructed, except- 
ing those in which gravity (weights) is used instead of the spring 5. 
Referring now to Fig. 1, 2 is a rock arm to which a catch-block 4 is 
pivotly secured. 5 is a spring, which is rigidly secured to a station- 
ary block or support 55, and is for holding the pin 6, of the catch- 
block 4, against the releasing cam 9, until the release is effected 
by the pin 6 meeting the raised portion 8 of the said releasing 
cam. 

As soon as the release is effected the face or catch portion 44 of the 
catch-block is held against the cam portion 77, of the intermittently 
actuated arm 7. The cam portion 77 is so shaped that the pin 6 
will pass over the raised portion 8 without coming in contact there- 
with. The broken lines show the raised position of the catch-bloch 
and the spring 5. Now it is obvious that (on the return stroke), as 



THE RECORD. 75 

soon as the edge 44 slides over the edge 7, the spring 5 will cause 
the catch-block to "fly" into catch position. As shown in Fig. 1, 
which shows all parts in their proper or catch position, and the rock- 
arm 2 in its extreme right to left position, you will readily under- 
stand that the rock-arm moving from left to right will cause the 
catch-block to catch and rotate the arm 7 through an arc of a circle, 
thus opening the valve, until the pin 6 meets the raised portion 8, 
when the catch-block releases the arm 7, which permits the vacuum 
pot to return the arm 7 to the position shown, which is the closed 
position of the valve. 

As you all understand how a vacuum is created in the vacuum 
pot on the upstroke of its piston, or during opening of the steam 
valve for admission, and how, as soon as release is effected, the 
vacuum draws the vacuum-pot piston down and closes the steam 
valve, it would be useless waste of time to go into a description of 
the liberating valve gear closing device, as usually constructed. 

The next question would be, what are the objections to the de- 
scribed device if it is properly constructed? 

The objection to the liberating valve gear, as now constructed, is, 
if more than 85 to 100 admissions per minute is attempted, the 
catch-block will release or "fly" out of contact with the intermit- 
tently actuated arm or lever before having opened the steam-admis- 
sion valve to point of release, and thereby permitting the premature 
closing of the steam-admission valve. The reason for this is the 
tendency of the intermittently actuated arm or lever 7 is to push the 
catch-block away or out of catch position. Now it is evident that if the 
push-away tendency of the said intermittently actuated arm or lever 
is greater than the resistance or holding into catch position power 
of the placing and holding into catch position spring, that the catch- 
block will be "pushed" out of catch position, thus prematurely re- 
leasing the intermittently actuated arm or lever, and permitting the 
closing device to prematurely close the steam-admission valve. Also 
that as the number of admissions per minute is increased, so must 
the rigidity or power of the placing and holding into catch position 
spring be increased. It is well known that it is impossible to make 



76 THE RECORD. 

said spring sufficiently rigid to work satisfactorily at over the speeds 
hereinbefore given. 

Another objection to the liberating system as now constructed is 
that the vacuum pot or weights used for closing the valve are not 
sufficiently rapid in action for use in connection with higher rotat- 
ive speeds than about 100 turns per minute. We now come to a 
device that was designed to increase the rotative speed of the liber- 
ating valve gear engine. 

In designing this gear I had two things to do ; the first was to do 
away with the spring that was used for placing and holding the 
catch-block into catch position, and to substitute for it a device that 
would be " positive" acting, and that would impart to the inter- 
mittently actuated arm or lever a movement that would be precisely 
the same as that imparted by the old spring actuated device. 

The second was to design a more rapid and positive acting valve- 
closing device than the usual vacuum pot. 

Referring now to Figures 2, 3 and 4, which are intended more to 
show the arrangement and movements than to show those little 
refinements of detail, such as leather buffers in each end of the slot 
40, of the catch-block 4. The rollers on the pins 3 and 6, and the 
several hardened steel wearing pieces, etc., all of which go to make 
up a perfect detail drawing, and which, if shown, would only tend 
to confuse detail with the main features of the gear. 

Suppose the steam piston (not shown) in position to receive steam, 
then the end 22, of the rock-arm 2, would be moving (rotating) 
from left to right, the catch-block 4 would be in contact with and 
actuating the intermittently actuated arm or lever 7, thereby open- 
ing the steam valve for admission and also raising the forked arm 
11 and through it (said forked arm), the compression pot piston rod 
and the compression pot piston, at the same time the valve 15 opens 
to admit air or other compressable fluid into the compression pot, 
14, as shown in Fig. 2. 

When the pin 6 meets the raised portion of the cam slot 8, which 
is in the release controlling cam 9, it (the pin 6), is raised, carrying 
with it the rear end of the catch-block 4, thus withdrawing the catch 



THE RECORD. 77 

portion of said catch-block out of contact with, and releasing the 
intermittently actuated arm or lever 7, as shown by Fig. 5, and 
thereby permitting the steam pressure (on the upper end of the 
compression pot piston rod 12) to cause the compression pot piston 
rod 12, the compression pot piston 13, and the forked-arm 11, to 
descend and close the steam admission valve. 

The valve 15 is in the position shown by Fig. 4 at practically all 
times, excepting, during opening of the steam valve for admission. 

After release is affected, and " perhaps" during closing of the 
steam admission valve, or longer, the end 22 of the rock-arm con- 
tinues to rotate from left to right until, its extreme from left to right 
position is reached, position A, Fig. 6, when it is reversed to from 
right to left, by the driving device. Fig. 7, also a continued refer- 
ence to Figs. 2, 3, and 4. 

Now the frictional resistance of the pin 6, and the frictional spring 
77, is such that the rear end of the catch-block is held practically 
stationary, until the pin 3 slides from the front end to the rear end 
of the slot 40, in the catch-block 4, thus raising the front end of 
said catch-block, as shown by position B, Fig. 6, for permitting 
the catch portion, of said catch-block, to pass over the intermit- 
tently actuated arm or lever 7, without coming in contact therewith, 
See Figure 7. 

Upon the end 22, of the rock-arm, reaching its extreme from 
right to left position (shown by position C, Fig. 8), it is reversed to, 
from left to right, when the frictional resistance of the pin 6 and 
the frictional spring 77, holds the rear end of the catch-block, while 
the pin 3 slides from the rear end to the front end of the slot 
40, thus pulling the catch-portion of the catch-block down into 
catch-position, shown by position D, Fig. 8, after which the ope ra- 
tions of opening, releasing, etc., are repeated. 

The closing of the steam admission valve without shock or jar, 
is affected by the compression pot 14 and its piston 13, because, the 
steam pressure on the upper end of the rod 12 is a. certain quantity, 
say 100 pounds, and the area of the compression pol |>is(on L3 is 
such that the total pressure of the compressed air or fluid, at 




7 6 ^ 



c 



T0-J)/f/S£ 



O goVErt/VOF? 




THE RECORD. 79 

moment of steam admission valve closure, is slightly less, say one 
or two pounds, than the total steam pressure on the end of the rod 12. 

It is obvious that at the moment of release, the compression pot 
being filled with air or other fluid, at say atmospheric pressure, and 
the valve 15 being closed, the rod 12 and piston 13 will descend 
quite rapidly, the speed gradually decreasing, as the air or fluid is 
compressed, until the moment of cut-off or admission-valve closure, 
the speed has been so retarded that the piston 13 will meet the 
bottom of the compression pot without shock or jar. 

I have presented the above, not as a satisfactory solution of the 
liberating valve gear problem, but as the result of an attempt to 
design a positive and therefore more rapid acting valve gear. 



A Synopsis of Calculations for Curves of Load and Buoy- 
ancy, Sheering Stresses, Bending Moments and 
Equivalent Girder for a Battleship* 

By H. Rottmer, Member. 

Gentlemen : In my endeavor to comply with the request of our 
secretary to say a few words on this subject, I realize that I will not 
be able to treat these questions as they deserve. Therefore I trust 
that your usual magnanimity will make you lenient critics. On 
account of the limitations necessarily imposed, I will condense my 
remarks as far as possible and will leave out some tables and figures, 
which I expected to include, for future consideration. 

The first step is to construct curves of weights and buoyancy, and 
supposing that all the weights and their centers have been calcu- 
lated, then the first thing to do is to decide upon a, proper scale by 
which to lay the work down. The scale should be reasonably small 
and yet large enough to pick up small quantities, which by right 
should be treated individually, and assigned as such to their 
respective locations; to deal with such in the aggregate introduces 



SO THE RECORD. 

an element of error which ought to be avoided if possible. In order 
I get an approximate idea of the maximum weights to be dealt 
with several test sections should be made where the heaviest loads 
are located. For instance, through boiler room including water 
and coal in wake: through engine rooms, and through turrets, 
magazines and shell rooms. To the greatest load thus found, a fair 
margin should be added, to be used in determining the scale. 

For a large seagoing battleship a scale of one-eighth of an inch 
equals one foot for the abscissa?, and one-eighth of an inch equals 
400 pounds (for one side of ship only) for ordinates. Such scale 
will keep the work within reasonable limits. On the abscissa? the 
frame stations and ordinates should be plainly marked and num- 
bered, which will facilitate locating weights from drawings on which 
either of these are indicated. The most suitable weights for a start 
are those which extend over the entire vessel and should be disposed 
of first : these should be followed up with items which are local in 
their nature, using smaller quantities to fill up intervening spaces. 
A sharp eye must be kept on the small voids as they have a way 
of hiding themselves and are liable to be falsely credited as repre- 
senting weights. 

As most of the structural and many other weights preponderate 
amidships, it will be found that very soon this pan of the abscissae 
takes the lead, and tempts the calculator to set off the succeeding 
quantities normal to the mass, which he should carefully avoid for 
obvious reasons. Before finally disposing of one item and taking 
up the next, a brief note of such facts as are necessary to relocate the 
same should be made, which will be an evidence that it has received 
due attention : this should be done in a systematic manner, embrac- 
ing every item, however large or insignificant, and each one of them 
should receive an index number both on the diagram and on the 
record. The most satisfactory way is to use ink instead of pencil 
lines for the diagram. It should be distinctly stated in every case 
whether the item last treated is for one or both side-. If one side 
only be used, many items centrally located must be taken at half 
their value., as they are common to both side-. Frequently a doubt 



THE RECORD. 81 

arises whether or not a given item has been properly disposed of; in 
such cases a simple reference to the record will dispel all doubt. 

One group of weights should be entirely exhausted, however tire- 
some and slow the progress may seem ; and though such may be 
composed chiefly of small and insignificant items, with hardly any 
appreciable magnitude, as expressed by their value in ordinates, 
yet these items are entitled to the same consideration as the large 
ones. 

After everything in sight has been plotted and recorded in the 
note book, a summary may be made, closely scrutinizing all the 
entries, and after being satisfied that every part and particle of the 
weights are on record, then a comparison may be made with the 
displacement, and should a slight discrepancy appear, the margin of 
weight always allowed should be treated accordingly, its center of 
gravity located at the center of gravity of hull, and be spread over 
the whole length of ship with a uniform taper (which is governed 
by the sectional areas of displacement), toward each end. 

The next step will be a trial for center of gravity of weights as 
plotted and may with advantage be made in two forms : First, in 
its rectangular condition ; and, next, when the same has been 
reduced to a curve ; this will involve some slight transpositions and 
should be done carefully ; these should be copied in soft pencil on 
dull back of tracing cloth and then transferred to very stiff card- 
board paper. Templates should be cut to these lines and carefully 
plumbed for the center of gravity, using several points of suspension. 
If the centers of gravity in both cases agree, and verify the previous 
calculations for center of gravity, then it will be evident that no 
error has occurred anywhere, and the work may be accepted as 
correct. 

A legend stating the total weight in pounds and tons, the mar- 
gin allowed, horizontal and vertical scales, draught of water, and 
location of center of gravity, should be marked on the template as a 
matter of record. The next operation should be a curve of buoy- 
ancy for still water, laid over the curve of weights, and be on the 
same scale, which will then show the excess of weight over buoy- 



82 THE RECORD. 

ancy, and vice versa, which, of course, is due to the fact that while 
the total weight is equal to the total buoyancy, the distribution of 
the same is irregular, as will be observed on the accompanying dia- 
gram. These differences set up to scale about an axis, will show the 
excess of weight or buoyancy. It should be clearly understood that 
it is worse than useless to proceed with this work unless the calcu- 
lator is certain that both elements balance each other within a very 
slight percentage. It may be urged that, with due attention, both 
should come out even, but taking into consideration the almost end- 
less array of facts and figures, minus quantities, modifications of 
displacement, partially submerged appendages, margin, etc., all 
claiming attention, a review becomes absolutely necessary. 

Close attention, clear and concise notes of all items plotted, due 
attention to plus and minus quantities, and proper location of 
weights about their centers of gravity, is the only way to prevent 
error. 

Another important consideration is the coincidence of the center 
of buoyancy and the center of gravity before beginning work on the 
curve of sheering stresses; when these are made to coincide, the in- 
tegrating for curve of shearing stresses may be proceeded with by 
one of various rules, such as Simpson's or Trapezoidal, or by the 
planimeter, by Avhich portions of the loops are successively integrated 
and the results set up as ordinates of a curve ; but as this stands in 
no immediate relation to the previous work, a more convenient and 
suitable scale may be used which will avoid, as much as possible, a 
large amount of mathematical work. Factors may, therefore, with 
advantage be expressed in terms of planimeter reading instead of 
reducing these in every instance to its equivalent in foot pounds or 
square foot pounds, and in order to select a suitable magnitude the 
total of the maximum loop may be used as the guide for scale in 
relation to planimeter reading, which may be set off in such units 
of length as appear most suitable for the work. For a large sea- 
going battle-ship a planimeter registering square inches, tenths and 
hundredths, may be divided first by 1 and again by 2 for shearing 
stresses; for bending moments, by 10 and again by 4. This first 



THE RECORD. 83 

division by 10 will be recognized as a mere convenience requiring 
simply to point off so many decimals. The reading so treated is set 
up to one-eighth of an inch. Thus, for example, for bending 
moments, where the mean of several readings is 1518, as is the case 
for portion bounded by frame 24 and stem, which divided by 10 X 4 
leaves a quotient of 37. 95 to be represented on diagram by so many 
J inches. 

Now, starting at zero at either end, the planimeter is run over 
the first loop say for two to four frame spaces and the reading 
treated as before indicated and set off as ordinate at the terminal of 
the enclosed area ; proceeding again from zero for the next trip with 
the planimeter, an additional section is included and treated as the 
first in regard to a relative ordinate. This process continues to the 
point of the next reverse rack, where the sign of the ordinates 
change, and which for the sake of convenience may be treated as a 
new zero. Indeed, each established ordinate may answer for that 
purpose; for large loops, intermediate zero spots become necessary; 
it will, however, be found more accurate to have as few of these as 
possible, as they are apt to prove a source of error. This process 
continues for the entire length of axis, and if both elements balance, 
as above mentioned, the ordinate of the last area will close in on 
the axis; if it does not, without juggling, the reason why should be 
inquired into, and as the curve of bending moments depends alto- 
gether upon this curve, it must be right and close in at the axis 
naturally. Until it does, any further work is thrown away. 

For a test of balancing pins and minus quantities, a large rolling 
planimeter is desirable. This is started at one end and run over 
the loops of both signs, then brought back on the axis to point of 
starting, where the reading should be the same as when beginning. 
Should the planimeter register more, then that side is larger which 
has its first loop starting away at zero, and vice versa. It any 
difference should be found of an appreciable magnitude, (hen the 
cause of tin', trouble should be traced back to its origin, which can 
be readily done by consulting the entries in note hook. In such 
cases the points of reverse rack will bear investigation. It would 



84 THE RECORD. 

be useless to proceed unless the trouble is found and the error 
corrected. 

When the curve of shearing stresses has been plotted and proved, 
we next take up the curve of bending moments, which is manipu- 
lated in precisely the same manner as described for the curve of 
shearing stresses, this curve being the basis for the former. Pro- 
ceeding slowly and carefully, and watching the points of reverse 
rack, are the principal things to bear in mind. 

Scales for Planimeter Readings for Still Water* 

Load: 

Horizontal scale, T V inch = 1 foot. 

Vertical scale, -re inch = 800 lbs. 

1 square inch = 16 X 16 X 800 = 204,800 lbs. 
Shearing stresses: 

Horizontal scale, ^V inch = 1 foot. 

Vertical scale, Yt inch == 204,800 (subject to constant). 

1 square inch = 16 X 16 X 204,800 = 5,242,880 ( do. ). 

Constant for scale on diagram for shearing = 

to = when the unit on vertical scale = -| " . 
i 

~9" = "^o when the unit on vertical scale = T V r . 

Hence the value for shearing on diagram = 

204,800 

— 2g — = 10,240 ft. lbs. or 4.571 foot tons = iV'. 

Bending moments: 

Horizontal scale, tV = 1 foot. 

Vertical scale, -r 6 - = 5,242,880 ft. lbs. (subject to constant). 

Constant for scale on diagram for bending = 

to X 2 = | when the unit on vertical scale = | inch. 

— ^ — = ^o when the unit on vertical scale = tV inch. 

Hence value for bending on diagram = 
5,242,880 



10 



= 524,288 ft. lbs. = 234.057 ft. tonsiV'. 



THE RECORD. 85 

Scales for Planimeter Readings for Crest and Hollow Wave Conditions* 

Load: 

Horizontal scale, tV" = 1 foot. 

Vertical scale, T \" = 800 lbs. 

1 square inch = 16 X 16 X 800 lbs. = 204,800 lbs. 
Shearing stresses: 

Horizontal scale, T V inch = 1 foot. 

Vertical scale, T V inch = 204,800 (subject to constant). 

1 square inch = 16 X 16 X 204,800 = 5,242,880 ( do. ) 

Constant for scale on diagram for shearing = 

nX2= | when the unit on vertical scale = \ ". 



To X 2 



ir when the unit on vertical scale 



i // 

T6" • 



Hence the value for shearing on diagram = 

204,800 

— j^ — = 20,480 ft. lbs. or 9.143 ft. tons = T V r . 

Bending moments: 

Horizontal scale, T V inch = 1 foot. 

Vertical scale, T V inch = 5,242,880 ft. lbs. (subject to constant). 

Constant for scale on diagram for bending = 

tV X 4 = | when the unit on vertical scale = \ ". 



tVX4 



\ji 



— — = \ when the unit on vertical scale = T V 

Hence, value for bending on diagram, 

5,242,880 

- ± - j = 1,048,576 ft. lbs. or 468.114 foot tons = T V / . 

These scales are for both sides of ship. 

Let it be remembered that in plotting the curves from the plani- 
meter, readings being square inches, tenths and hundredths, that 
it will be found necessary to manipulate these in order to get a 
suitable magnitude for the ordinates; in this case they are divided 
by 10 X 2 and 10 X 4, respectively, for shearing and bending, as 
previously stated, the unit for scale being \" . This treatment, 
however, deals with the reading as a whole, therefore in figuring 



86 THE RECORD. 

for the constant this fact should be borne in mind and the decimals 
restored to their proper place. 

The results of these equations should be turned into a convenient 
form of round numbers, and the corresponding inches due to such 
be subdivided into units and tenths. Such a scale should be drawn 
in a suitable place and plainly marked. A brief statement of the 
origin of such a scale should also be made on the drawing for future 
reference and explanation. 

The foregoing work pertains to the stresses of the ship in still water: 
we will now consider the same in disturbed water. The first step in 
that direction will be to construct a cycloidal wave of the length of the 
ship, running about twenty feet high. In order to obtain the draft 
due to the displacement on this wave we resort to the use of a line 
through the curves of sectional area at such height from base line 
as the wave indicates. The draft of the A^essel at this displacement 
in still water being known it is comparatively easy to pitch on the 
draft due to the altered condition. We do not. however, expect to 
strike the exact spot at once, we therefore make two approximations, 
purposely overestimating on the one hand and underestimating on 
the other, and figure the displacement and centers of buoyancy of 
these. We then connect the results by a line drawn to scale, and 
interpolate the desired displacement. This process will enable us to 
get our exact draft very closely, and with it the center of buoyancy. 
The curves of sectional areas are laid off in their respective positions 
on a longitudinal profile which may be suitably contracted, if neces- 
sary, to confine the work within reasonable limits. The vertical scale 
may, with advantage, be one-half inch to one foot, and the horizon- 
tal one-eighth inch to one foot, taking care that all the various ele- 
ments harmonize in regard to scales. The values of sectional areas 
in the case under consideration are divided by 100 and the quotient 
set up to one-quarter of an inch scale for both sides of ship. 

There iioav remains but one condition to be dealt with, which is 
that of the ship in hollow wave, and which can be disposed of in a 
few words. Referring to cycloidal wave (which, by the way, may 
be made on tracing cloth,) it will be seen that all that is necessarv is to 



THE RECORD. 87 

transpose the ordinates, which will change the same from crest to 
hollow wave, after which proceed, as indicated for crest of wave con- 
dition. The curves of buoyancy thus obtained for crest and hollow 
of wave, will be applied to the curve of weights in the same man- 
ner as detailed for still water. 

To apply the data obtained from the preceding calculations it will 
be necessary to construct an equivalent girder for the vicinity of the 
place where the maximum bending moment occurs. If the stress at 
any other point is desired, all that is necessary is to construct an equiv- 
alent girder for that section and apply the bending moment taken 
from curve for that location. 

In working out the areas of these girders all local parts of the 
structure should be carefully excluded, taking only the continuous 
members of the structure which are subject to longitudinal' stress. 
It will not be necessary to stick to any particular kind of scheme, 
the calculator should nevertheless formulate some kind of a system 
of record which will enable him to keep track of the work as it de- 
velops. Such a schedule might include a statement of the part of 
structure, its size, total area, effective area, number and diameter of 
rivet holes, deduction due to such when in tension, distribution of 
members, distance from top to bottom, preferably referred to some 
fixed line, such as base or water line, its magnitude horizontally and 
vertically, its center of gravity, etc. Then let all the parts be fig- 
ured and put under their respective headings, and no trouble will be 
experienced. Here, again, it will be well to make the entries specific 
in regard to the disposition of all members, and particularly those 
which are centrally located, and in no case relying too much on 
memory alone. 

The figuring for areas of cross-sections should also he done 
methodically, and be commenced from some fixed point, working 
along a given or logical line which will prevent confusion in placing 
the same on the diagram. Such items which harmonize best together 
may be picked out in rotation, leaving smaller and paore irregularly 
located ones until an opportunity occurs to till in with those suit- 
able crevices left over. 



88 THE RECORD. 

All the items in the meantime receive their consecutive numbers. 
Bulkheads, etc., in the vicinity of where the neutral axis will be 
located, might be credited to that side of the same where they pre- 
ponderate in respect to their effective area, either tension or com- 
pression side of axis as the case may be. 

Where wooden decks occur, their relation to steel may be figured 
at a ratio of 1 to 25 where such lay naked on the beams, and 1 to 20 
where a metal deck intervenes. For large vessels the area of shapes 
may be treated as being uniformly distributed over their respective 
depths. 

The scale to which the girder should be plotted on the paper is 
optional ; no hard and fast rule can be recommended. For a large, 
heavy warship the vertical scale may be J inch = 1 foot. The 
horizontal scale (-§- inch) or yq inch for both sides, which is rather 
difficult when dealing with small quantities, but when completed 
shows up fairly well. The extent of horizontal contractions and 
vertical magnitude for armored decks, etc, must also be left to the 
calculator's judgment. 

Assuming that the girder is plotted and the individual areas 
tabulated, then the neutral axis should be calculated, which may 
be done from the diagram or from the tabulated sheets. In the first 
case these consolidated blocks of items can be very readily measured up 
and dealt with, but the second has the advantage of greater accuracy. 
The former, on account of the inherent and unavoidable element of 
distortion is liable to some error from which the other is free. Pro- 
ceeding then with the tabulated sheets which contain all the indi- 
vidual areas, which in proper numerical order may be copied on a 
form previously prepared containing all the necessary headings, which 
are, beginning at the extreme left-hand side : First, a legend stating 
what the items are; next, depth of the item, number, square of 
depth, number of square inches, center of gravity above base, 
moment of inertia about axis, increment of one-twelfth area of main 
webs multiplied by the square of the distance from axis to the 
center gravity of web. Items should also be indexed for both hog- 
ging and sagging, as the case may be, which will be found to facil- 
itate the work and prevent confusion. 



THE RECORD. 89 

The increment of T V area, multiplied by the square of the distance, 
applies only to members of an appreciable vertical magnitude, and 
no account is taken of the smaller items. 

After everything has been entered on the new sheet, including 
the center of gravity, or neutral axis, the work may proceed for 
moment of inertia, adding thereto amount due to increment. 

Work in regard to moment of inertia about neutral axis may be 
simplified by dealing with the items as they appear in the preced- 
ing sheet, i. e., their centers of gravity referred to base line, deduct- 
ing from this total moment of inertia that which, is due to the 
height of neutral axis from base ; the remainder will be the value of 
moment of inertia when multiplied by 2 for both sides of ship, or 
the moment of inertia about the neutral axis. This then is the last 
factor necessary for ascertaining the stresses on the vessel for the 
various conditions, crest, hollow wave and still water. 

The first two being maximum shearing stresses and bending 
moments previously referred to. 

To find the strain upon the material at any point in the girder 
the following formula is employed: 

Let M = maximum bending moment. 
/ = moment of inertia. 
d = distance of point considered from neutral axis. 

then y — = stress in tons per square inch of material. 

A statement of the relation of this in regard to displacement mul- 
tiplied by length of ship must also be made. Armor belts should 
be included for the sagging condition, but not for hogging. The 
reason will be manifest on inspection. 

Usually a detailed statement of stress on main deck and bottom 
plating is made for all conditions, sagging, hogging and still water. 

The appended tables will explain themselves, and only for the 
curve of weights it may be necessary to say that the inclosed areas 
are the individual weights, each of which is numbered on the 
drawing. Only a few of the larger ones are here shown to il Inst rate 
the method. 



90 THE RECORD. 

The first two deal with the most unfavorable conditions imagin- 
able to which a ship can be and is subjected, i. e., when supported 
mainly at the center of her length, or at the extreme ends, and 
fully loaded. 

A reckless disregard and ignorance of fundamental principles by 
amateurs are two of the principal reasons why vessel property some- 
times mysteriously disappears, owing to doing business so near the 
danger line, which is due to a combination of inherent weakness 
and unscientific loading of heavy cargo, that in bad weather strain 
the deck plating and upper works to its utmost resisting capacity, 
thereby tempting Providence and outraging underwriters and in- 
surance associations. The latter, to protect themselves and owners 
from unscientific parties, as much as possible, and to obviate 
disaster, such as total collapse due to insufficiency of metal or inju- 
dicious distribution of the same, have found it necessary to formu- 
late and adopt some stringent rules which are intended, in a general 
way, to govern the size of scantling and openings in deck and side. 
As a further and most important safeguard, prominent firms of 
vessel owners of all maritime countries of any pretensions co-operate 
with the underwriters by assigning to highly-trained marine con- 
structors and engineers the care of their fleet of immense racing 
machines and freighters, retiring the purely nautical expert as 
superintendent of construction to a field of activity more in har- 
mony with the talent required for that profession. 

In conclusion, I hope it may not be amiss to urge upon our 
younger brethren, the necessity of studying and qualifying them- 
selves to the full extent of their capacity and to concentrate their 
efforts along a given line, so that in the natural course of events 
they will prove worthy assistants to the gentlemen who will be the 
leaders in the future. 



800 lbs. 
4.571 tons. 
234.057 ft. tons. 



Battleship in Still Water, 


Scale : 




For curve of load, 


i // 

1 6 


For shearing stresses, 


1 // 

TB" 


For bending moments, 


1 // 
16 



THE RECORD. 91 

Ratio of i Dis P laceme f X Length to 1 = 1 ^ ^ 

I maximum bending moment J 
Graduations on scale for bending moments = 2,000 ft. tons. 
Frame stations 4 feet apart, scale, T V inch = 1 foot. 

Battleship on Crest of Wave* 

Scale : 

For curve of load, iV inch =800 lbs. 

For shearing stresses, tV inch = 9.143 tons. 

For bending moments, t& inch = 468.114 ft. tons. 

Ratio of I Dis P lacement X Len S th t0 1 = 1 to 47.548. 
I maximum bending moment J 

Graduations on scale for shearing stresses represent 100 tons. 

Graduations on scale for bending moments represent 5,000 ft. tons. 

Frame stations 4 feet apart, scale, -r 6 - inch = 1 foot. 

Battleship in Hollow Wave. 

Scale : 

For curve of load, T V inch = 800 lbs. 

For shearing stresses, iV inch = 9.143 tons. 

For bending moments, tq inch = 468.114 ft. tons. 

Ratio of { Dis P lacemellt X Length to I = t to 83.425. 
I maximum bending moment J 

Graduations on scale for shearing stresses \ , ™ , 

represent J 

Graduations on scale for bending mo- 1 , AAn ,,, 

& I - 5,000 ft. tons. 

ments represent J 

Frame stations 4 feet apart, scale tg inch = 1 foot. 

For Equivalent Girder, Still Water* 

Moment of inertia, same as for crest of wave = 475,023.40. 
Maximum bending moment, — 49,268.50'. 

Top flange of girder from neutral axis, . 19.83. 

Stress per square inch on | 49,268.5 X 19.83 k) ,y , 

top flange of girder j ' 475,023.4 

Stress per square inch on ) 49,268.5 \ 15.65 



>er square inch on | 
i flange of girder j 



bottom flange of girder j 475,023.1 

Exclusive of armor belts and armored decks. 



1.62 Ions. 



92 THE RECORD. 

For Equivalent Girder, Crest of "Wave* 

J effective area, = 1,680.65 square inches. 

J moment above base, = 26,227.77 

Neutral axis above base, == 15.65 

J moment of inertia above base, = 644,262.67 
1,680.65 sq. in. X 15.65 X 15.65 == 411,591.19 



J moment of inertia about axis, = 232,671.48 

Increment for tV area X d 2 , = 4,840.22 



(Total) J moment of inertia about axis = 237,511.70 
For both sides, 2 



Total moment of inertia about axis == 475,023.40 

Maximum bending moment on crest of wave == 95,682.5 ft. tons. 
Top flange of girder from neutral axis == 19.83 feet. 

Stress per square inch on 1 _ _ 95,682.5 X 19.83 « q()4 , 

top flange of girder J " 475,023.4 

Stress per square inch on 1 95,682.5 X 15.65 q i ko + 

bottom flange of girder J 475,023.4 

Exclusive of armor belts and armored decks. 

For Equivalent Girder, Hollow Wave. 

J effective area, = 3,866.10 square inches. 

| moment above base, = 85,378.27 

Neutral axis above base, = 22.08 

\ moment of inertia above base, = 2,208,300.18 
3,866 X 22.08 X 22.08 = 1,884,825.81 



\ moment of inertia about axis, = 323,474.37 
Increment for T2 area X d 2 , = 5,907.78 



(Ttl) J moment of inertia about axis = 329,382.15 
For both sides, 2 



Total moment of inertia about axis = 658,764.30 



92 



Jefi 



m 



Neu 

i m 
1 

Inc 



M 
T 

81 

s 

E 



THE RECORD. 



93 



Maximum bending moment in hollow wave = 54,535 ft. tons. 
Top flange of girder from neutral axis, == 13.44. 

Stress per square inch on 1 54,535 X 13.44 

top flange of girder J 658,764.3 

Stress on bottom flange of 1 = 54,535 X 22.08 _ j 828 t ns 
girder per square inch J 



1.112 tons. 



658,764.3 
Inclusive of armor belts and armored decks. 




cto zz zv&Zd -7Z it <?z 7*-c£&2±. 



??s Tercet 7?&ccySf tet^c^i.^ r-Ai^T* 




^\\\\\\\\\\^\^ ^^^ 



THE RECORD. 97 

From Chapters. 

By Mr. J. W. Simms, Member. 

In entering upon what is really the first winter of our existence 
as a Chapter, it is our duty to begin with a thorough knowledge of 
the importance of our profession and of this association, a firm 
belief in our ability to improve them both, and an earnest resolve to 
advance them hand in hand. 

Our profession, like all others, will attain eminence as its indi- 
viduals reach a higher state of education, and as they impart some 
of their individuality to the whole body. Our association will 
become one of importance when it has made a common ground 
upon which the draftsmen of this country can meet in friendly inter- 
course, making the interest of one the interest of all. Both results 
will be obtained by frequent meetings at which we should each try 
to furnish something, however insignificant, for the improvement or 
amusement of all. 

Recently, in looking through an old number of an engineering 
paper, I chanced upon an article, which I am sure, will be of much 
interest to all draftsmen, and which tells in plain words the con- 
dition of our foreign brethren. It reads as follows: 

u To the Editor: 

"Sir: If your correspondent ' Wrath' were more acquainted 
with the circumstances of his fellow craftsmen and the conditions 
under which most of them work, both in the metropolis and 
throughout the provinces, he would find that he has little cause to 
complain; yet, doubtless, it is better for 'Wrath' and his late 
employer that they have parted company. 

"The subject introduced is of wide interest, although, probably, 
not as popular as the laundry question, debated with so much vigor 
in connection with the 'Factories and Workshop' bill before Parlia 
merit. Draftsmen are a collection of odd follows without rank or 
recognized position, and generally out of harmony with the rest of 

7 R 



98 THE RECORD. 

mankind. They come from such different levels in the social scale, 
receive such different education, and obtain such different technical 
training, that they admit of no classification ; it-is for these reasons 
that so few subscribe to any institution or trade society. Besides all 
this, there are the common and universal differences of physique, 
presence and natural ability, which so largely settle the fates of men. 

"The writer submits, firstly, that in consequence of the un- 
healthy pose, concentration of thought, and ceaseless study neces- 
sary, no additional useful effect can be extorted from a number of 
draftsmen by extending the working hours beyond a maximum of 
seven per day, that is, when the work is anything more than a 
stimulated effort, supported only for a few days. 

"Secondly, that all overtime should be paid for at a much greater 
rate than ordinary time, say fifty to a hundred }Der cent. more. 
This is the most certain method of insuring short hours of work 
and inducing earnest attention to business. 

" Workers who advocate long hours are chiefly those whose object 
to 'make time' regardless of the value of what they do; their lives 
are of little use to themselves, therefore, they endeavor to sell all 
the hours they can. In the more exacting spheres of life, long 
hours can not be profitably worked for more than a few days 
together, and then only when to the obvious advantage of the 
workers. 

"Draftsmen of the higher grade are more in touch with their 
employers, and extra service is usually recognized in a suitable and 
substantial manner, but for the mass it is desirable that all overtime 
should be paid for on a fixed principle, otherwise, when there is an 
excess of business to be got through, the draftsmen, considering 
themselves imposed upon, as in fact, they often are, to the extent of 
three or four hours a day for several consecutive months, become 
demoralized, have neither interest nor earnestness in their work, and 
spend their best energy in seeking other situations. 

"In time both professional and manufacturing engineers will find 
that draftsmen are something more than mere machines, and that, 
in common with skilled mechanics, their efficiency is inversely as the 
time they work. 



THE RECORD. 99 

"Good will be done if the relatively small grievance of an indi- 
vidual is made the stepping stone to a broad view of the true posi- 
tion of a numerous but obscure body of workers, where pay and 
position are not nearly so good as usually supposed by the uniniti- 
ated, and whose business is of such an exacting and worrying nature 
as to render them negligent fathers, undesirable husbands, and gen- 
erally unavailable for any social purpose beyond their own calling. 

"In conclusion, let the young know that consumption, impaired 
sight, and not infrequently impaired reason, too, are the early re- 
wards to be met with in the path of life under review, and that the 
plow and the axe are typical tools whereby more health and happi- 
ness, and therefore more true wealth, can be secured than b} r the aid 
of all the fascinating mathematical instruments in London and West- 
minster. 

"(Signed) Old Observer." 

This, gentlemen, is the draftsman's lot in a country which is rich 
in manufactures and arts, and in which he was striving for a living 
hundreds of years before the existence of this country was known. 
If all these years have produced such results in Europe, what have 
we to look forward to? While other professions are advancing to 
positions of honor and importance, are we going to remain inert, 
and allow the one profession upon which so much of the success of 
our manufactories depends, and upon which so much wealth has 
been and will be built up, to sink so low that in a hundred years, or 
in any number of years, its members will be looked upon by the 
world at large as a collection of odd fellows who make negligenl 
fathers and undesirable husbands? A most gloomy future, you 
must admit, and not calculated to inspire us with either ambition or 
enthusiasm. The importance of our calling has continually in- 
creased, but the recognition of its importance has been withheld. 
Why lias it been withheld in Europe, and why should it be with- 
held in this country ? We must face conditions and make this a 
subject of further thought and discussion, [f we are satisfied with 
the results attained in Europe, and have no greater pride in our pro- 
fession than they, then let us seriously consider the advice oi' an old 



100 THE RECORD. 

observer, and question whether we had not better forsake the triangle • 
and T-square to take up the plow and axe. It has been said that 
the "best prophets of the future is the past." let us prove the ex- 
ception to the rule, and awake to the importance of placing our pro- 
fession upon a higher plane. We will not only be doing our duty 
to ourselves, but also to our posterity. This cannot be attained 
by individual exertion, but can be by united effort. I think ••an 
old observer*' has spoken truly when he said that draftsmen are out 
of harmony with the rest of the world, and we must endeavor to 
overcome this condition. If we are out of harmony with the rest 
of the world it is for two reasons, namely, because of long hours of 
close confinement, and because we are not awoke to the importance 
of keeping in touch with the world. While we are leaning over our 
tables the world is changing in thought, life, polities, and religion, 
but what have we to do with these changes ? 

We are too tired to take any part in them, and are willing to 
leave those things which have so much to do with broadening the 
mind, improving mankind, and with smoothing off the rough cor- 
ners of life to others who have more time for such matters. It will 
benefit us as much to meet for the discussion of the laws of nature 
as for the discussion of a scientific question. We must not confine 
our minds to the study of professional subjects alone but force them 
occasionally to branch out into other channels. In other words we 
must do our own tliinking. Other people are not going to think of 
what is good for us and then come to tell us of it. We have got to 
work it all out ourselves. And when we have decided what is good 
for us we have got to try to find the method of attainment. We 
cannot obtain much out of little except by a gradual state of 
improvement, with our thoughts always upon the object we wish to 
attain. We must force each other to recognize the importance of 
study and application, and when we are intellectually equal to the 
members of other professions, the value of our services will be deter- 
mined upon a basis of intellectual ability rather than upon manual 
skill. At the same time we must establish an esprit de corps, which 
is the very life of all other professions. Without the friendly com- 
munion of doctors their profession would not be the eminent one it 



THE RECORD 101 

is to-day, for they could not have taken advantage collectively of 
individual knowledge, and the world at large would be the loser. 
Let us strive to win an eminence for our profession, depending upon 
our employers to lend us a willing aid, hoping they may see that a 
deep and conscientious interest in our work on our part will redound 
to their advantage, and that the world at large will be benefited by 
the results accomplished. 

It is natural that many of our profession are promoted to positions 
of importance, and that they frequently become large employers of 
draftsmen. They should become interested in our cause before they 
win fame, so that they may recognize our hardships, and make our 
lot a happier one in the day of their success. Friendships made in 
adversity should be the stronger and not forgotten in the flush of 
fortune. The successful ones should not become separated from the 
main body when they seek higher honors in the various societies of 
engineers and architects. The successful members of other profes- 
sions help the less fortunate in their struggle for advancement by 
furnishing incentives for wholesome study and establishing a fellow- 
ship which creates individual friendships and professional loyalty. 

I have been unable to obtain anything authentic relative to the 
average age of draftsmen in Europe, but I am told that the useful 
life of draftsmen is short, and that in most establishments old men 
are not desired. This is anything but a cheerful outlook for most 
of us, and it seems unfair to force upon us the infirmities of old age 
prematurely by demanding long hours and furnishing poor light. 
When our eyes are dim, our shoulders bent with long hours of 
leaning over drawing tables, and our minds weakened by being 
continually forced in one channel with no time for recreation, then 
our usefulness is at an end, and we are replaced by young manhood 
destined to follow in our footsteps. It is plain that our days of use- 
fulness would be materially lengthened were conditions more favor- 
able, and the lawyer^ physician and clergyman who insist upon 
having the necessary recreation are young and good for many years 
of hard work, while wo are prematurely old, having spenl a few 
years of usefulness on salaries inadequate i'ov saving anything, are 
out of touch with all the world, and perhaps a burden upon our 



102 THE RECORD 

offspring. Let us believe our employers will recognize our efforts in 
the spirit they are rendered, and will give us reasonable working 
hours in well lighted and ventilated rooms. Much indeed is de- 
manded of us when we are asked to give up a few of the best years 
of our lives at the expense of our eyesight. Nothing can compen- 
sate us for such a loss. Is not the sense of sight as valuable to us 
as to the New York merchant who recently offered a million dollars 
to any one who would restore his sight ? Nay. far more so. for we 
are dependent upon it for a living, for our very existence. 

Gentlemen, let me urge upon you the importance of using your 
every effort to advance the cause of this Association and your pro- 
fession. The two will ever be found, hand in hand, mutually 
dependent upon each other, and if one droops and dies the other 
will wither and dry up. Our Association must be made a source 
of education for the benefit of the profession, and we can obtain 
much pleasure in its accomplishment if we have the encouragement 
of the members of the profession. It was never the intention of the 
founders of this Society, nor will it ever be, to make it a labor 
organization, but instead it was intended to put all the draftsmen of 
the country in touch with each other, furnishing incentives for a 
serious consideration of professional questions, and means of a pleas- 
urable fellowship. Our value as professional men will be deter- 
mined by our ability to overcome difficulties, and we must keep 
pace with the times. Our value as citizens will be determined by 
the amount of individual aid we can render for the welfare of the 
whole body politic. In this let us endeavor to make the times keep 
pace with us. 

We must put our professional pride upon a high plane, but above 
all let us place the glory of being Americans, with a firm faith in 
American institutions, and render a solemn vow to maintain them. 
We are living in an age of unrest and dissatisfaction, and are on 
the very brink of changes that no one can foretell, but it is our duty 
as good citizens to think as we have never thought before, in order 
to determine what is right and espouse, placing above all '-'Our 
country, may she always be in the right ; but right or wrong, our 
country." 



XLhc IRecorfc. 



Editorial Staff: 

W. A. DOBSON. CHAS. C. DODGE. WM. T. JONES. 

The Editors of The Eecord feel that they can well congratulate 
the members of the Association on the interest taken by those who 
have submitted papers for discussion and publication. The range 
of subjects is greater than last year and the papers have been pre- 
pared with great care. We have good cause for encouragement in 
greater efforts, for it is, after all, the individual interest that is taken 
in an association of any sort that makes it successful. The indi- 
vidual interest and effort in this Association is increasing, and the 
stimulus thus given is already felt. It also gives us pleasure to 
state that prominent engineering firms have written us stating their 
interest in our Association and their hopes that it will be successful 
in advancing the well-being of draftsmen and in stimulating them 
to do their best. 



We regret that the ex-President of the United States found it 
necessary to veto the immigration bill lately passed by Congress. 
While the bill was not perfection, it was a great advance on all pre- 
vious efforts and was well calculated, by reason of its educational 
clause, to keep out of our country the very classes least desirable. 
The fact, however, that such a bill passed through Congress and 
reached the Executive gives us hope that a similar bill will soon 
become a law. 



Who can tell why it is that when an alien draftsman gives up 
Ins employment he always has a, brother alien io take liis place, and 
usually manages to have him appointed? This shifting aboul from 
place to place should be more carefully looked in, as it frequently 



104 THE RECORD. 

happens that the date of landing in this country and the date of 
appointment are suspiciously near each other. Some years ago one 
of the most prominent members of a foreign society was openly 
known to be an employment agent. 



"United We Stand; Divided We Fall." 

By J. A. Nelson. 

Taken as a whole, the most prominent and general characteristic 
of human nature is selfishness. That is to say, that most men will 
not hesitate to walk rough shod over the most promising hopes and 
chances of their fellow beings if thereby they gain some personal 
advantage or advancement. Often times this gain to themselves is 
ridiculously small as compared with what they have destroyed to 
obtain it. 

Another characteristic of mankind is jealousy. Few men can ob- 
serve without envy the advancement and success of a friend. The 
more intimate and personal the relations existing with the friend the 
greater often times is the degree of jealousy engendered. 

The result of these passions is that men often " cut off their own 
nose " in an unreasoning manner, and in the future regret hasty ac- 
tion in the present, which is like a boomerang apparently directed 
against another person but returns to its starting place and strikes 
down the thrower. 

It is sad to say that these characteristics exist to an excessive de- 
gree among draftsmen, resulting in a lack of united and concentrated 
action in matters for the good of all, affecting favorably a few more 
than the many, but favoring all, more or less, either in the present 
or future. 

Even selfish interests, if stripped of jealousy, would show with a 
little thought that opposition to such measures is self-destructive. 
Everything tending to increase the sphere of action or emoluments 
of one member of the profession also operates to the personal better- 
ment of each member by increasing the upward tendency of the pro- 
fession as a whole. Blind resistance to increase of pay of fellow 



THE RECORD. 105 

draftsmen is made without realization of the fact that it may prove 
the entering wedge by which the kicker may also receive the in- 
crease. Never oppose the advancement of a draftsman even if you 
are left out in the cold, for it may prove a very effective fulcrum for 
raising yourself in the not distant future. 

In conclusion, let me urge all draftsmen to sink all personal jeal- 
ousies in matters of this kind, remembering that what benefits one 
member of the profession will sooner or later benefit all. The stand- 
ing of any profession is dependent upon the individual standing of 
its members, and every time the standing of one is bettered that of 
all is raised. 



Now that we are entering upon our seventh year, let us put aside 
all childish jealousies, cement our friendship into a closer union, and 
realize that we are brothers in interest if not in fact. The maladies 
incident to childhood have been successfully combatted, and we 
must now endeavor to show the world that we are assuming an 
important and dignified position. 

A new organization always finds troubles and difficulties in its 
path, but after they have been overcome, its progress henceforth is 
in the open. During the past year we have witnessed the birth of a 
new offspring in the Philadelphia Chapter. This chapter had much 
to contend with from the start, and their experience will be valuable 
in the formation of future chapters. 

At their first meeting twenty-six draftsmen were present, many o\' 
whom were not members of the Association of American Draftsmen 
but who were invited to attend to aid in the formation of the chapter. 
Then followed a series of meetings at which there was long and 
much unnecessary squabbling over by-laws and matters of little 
importance, which, nevertheless, consumed much valuable time. 
This, together with the fact that a previous attempt a1 forming an 
association of draftsmen had proven a failure, bad the effed oi' 
causing many to withhold their support nnlil they fell assured of a 
successful issue. 

When the Association of American Draftsmen was organized in 



106 THE RECORD. 

Washington, it was feared by some of the foreign draftsmen that it 
would prove an influential organization, and to counteract its influ- 
ence they formed, in Philadephia, what was called the American 
Association of Draftsmen. They immediately sought the support 
of as many American draftsmen as possible, and many did join it, 
including some of our own members. After adopting by-laws and 
electing officers they had a few months of a desultory existence, but 
for some reason, possibly because as they were not "birds mit one 
feather they did not flock by himself," the organization soon came 
to an end. This failure is generally known among the draftsmen, 
and has reacted unfavorably upon the formation of our chapter, 
and many are waiting to see whether the results of our endeavors 
will be more fruitful. It is well recognized, however, by individuals, 
that no profession was ever more in need of a society or fraternal 
organization than ours. 

The long controversy over by-laws makes it evident that the best 
way to form chajDters in the future will be for eight or ten members 
of the Association to meet and draw up by-laws. Let them settle 
everything and when they invite new men to join there will be left 
nothing except the "good of the chapter" to cause discussion. As 
the new members come in they can be assigned to the various 
working committees, and everything will move with precision. 

In the case of the Philadelphia Chapter a great deal depended 
upon their ability to obtain some sort of a permanent home where 
they could meet together frequently, for many were total strangers 
to the rest, and a feeling of friendship had necessarily to be fostered. 
It was impossible to accomplish this, however, until a certain mem- 
bership had been obtained, and those who withheld their support in 
the beginning not only crippled the efforts of those most zealous for 
the welfare of the chapter, but also had no little influence in 
restraining others from lending their aid. This was most unfor- 
tunate, but can be easily avoided in the formation of other chapters. 

The matter of a permanent home has been held in abeyance, be- 
cause no suitable quarters, at a low rental, in a desirable location, 
could be obtained. The object of obtaining a home was for the purpose 
of having a meeting place for the members and committees, a place 



THE RECORD. 107 

where records could be kept, and where various classes in mathemat- 
ics and the industrial arts could meet for instruction. The question 
of furnishing a home was another important consideration, and two 
schemes were proposed for its accomplishment. One of these was 
for a number of the more zealous members, who felt able to pay an- 
nual dues of $15, to form a club, furnish it, and allow the chapter 
to use its rooms for a nominal sum, hoping that eventually all mem- 
bers of the chapter would become members of the club, thus merg- 
ing the two into one. This did not prove a popular measure. The 
other plan was to issue bonds in five and ten dollar lots, to be sub- 
scribed for by members. This brought forth subscriptions from about 
fifteen members to the amount of $150, which is sufficient to cover 
the cost of furnishing quarters, and it is hoped that the membership 
will increase so rapidly that the dues from the increased member- 
ship will be ample to pay the rent of quarters, cost of printing, post- 
age, and retire the bonds at no distant date. Neither of these have 
as yet been adopted. 

In endeavoring to make it an object for all draftsmen to become 
members of the chapter, it was proposed to form a series of classes 
in various studies and notices were sent out requesting each mem- 
ber to send in a statement of what -classes he desired to join, or what 
classes he would be willing to instruct one night per week. The 
services of the instructors were to be entirely voluntary and the 
classes were open to all members without extra charge. There were 
replies from about one-third of the members, which was a disap- 
pointment, as it was thought that at least one-half would be inter- 
ested in this matter. This would seem to indicate that among other 
things American draftsmen are not filled with that desire for improve- 
ment which is essential if we ever hope to advance 1 our profession. 
We should make strenuous efforts to impress upon our members the 
importance of study and adopt anything that may furnish the in- 
centive. 

Some of us do not even yet comprehend the importance of this 
Association and its far-reaching effects. We are gradually* getting 
into such shape thai we may soon expect to derive many benefits. 



108 THE RECORD. 

The work thus far has not been properly systematized, and the offi- 
cers have had too many little details to look after. The principal 
work must necessarily be accomplished through committees, and with 
industrious committees, together with an intelligent system of record- 
ing the results of their labors, results will be attained whose value 
we cannot estimate. The Committee on Meetings should have en- 
tire charge of preparations for meetings and entertainments, endeav- 
oring to provide lecturers and to select subjects for discussion which 
would be of interest to the majority of the members. 

The Committee on Membership should work out plans for extend- 
ing our membership into every place where draftsmen are employed, 
learning the address of every draftsman in the vicinity, in order 
that they may send them literature or even call on them in person 
to impress upon them the importance of associating themselves with 
us. They should make a special endeavor to show the apprentices 
and students of drawing that we are interested in their welfare and 
welcome them to our meetings. This class of beginners should, 
perhaps, be allowed the privileges of our organization for a year 
without exacting any dues. The Record Committee, besides keep- 
ing complete records of the doings of the Association, can start a 
cabinet of clippings from newspapers and periodicals. If each 
member would take the trouble to cut out articles from the daily 
papers which he deems of general interest and turn them over to 
this committee to be filed, it would soon become a valuable collec- 
tion. The Publications and Library Committees should look after 
the printing of papers so ordered and form a nucleus of a library by 
requesting the various manufacturers to furnish them with their 
catalogues. Such a library would be a most useful and popular 
one for reference. The manufacturers would soon appreciate the 
advantage of keeping us well informed as to their improvements in 
machinery, and in no other way can we more successfully bring our 
organization to their notice. The Committee on Data should collect 
data on every conceivable subject relating to our profession, and 
each member should take pleasure in furnishing whatever informa- 
tion he can. Any one desiring information upon any question can 
address this committee, which shall make a charge of five cents to 



THE RECORD- 109 

cover postage, and when the information desired cannot be given, a 
special endeavor shall be made to obtain it, so that it will be ready 
for the next seeker. With systematic and well applied efforts the 
various committees can pile up a mass of information that will be of 
inestimable value to us. 

Last, but not least, let us look after the social features of our 
organization. Each chapter should have a Social Committee com- 
posed of one member for every 10 or 15 members of the chapter. 
The membership of the chapter should then be divided into groups 
of 10 or 15, and it shall be the duty of each committeeman to get 
the group assigned to him together at the house of one of the mem- 
bers at least once a month. These groups to be changed every 
quarter, so that a different set will be thrown together socially every 
three months. A stronger friendship is one of the most necessary 
features to be cultivated. 

After all has been said, there is much cause for congratulation 
for what we have accomplished in the past. A more zealous inter- 
est during the present year will see our membership increase three- 
fold. The importance of our organization is now thoroughly recog- 
nized, and as soon as each one realizes the necessity for individual 
effort we can reasonably expect far more valuable results than those 
attained thus far. 



Tough* 

A recent incident that has come under our notice should not be 
allowed to pass without comment. One of our college graduates, 
after a two years' experience in practical work, realizing the import- 
ance of a more thorough mathematical education, determined to go 
abroad, thinking, no doubt that he could take a more advanced 
course in that study there than in this country. He spent several 
years in Germany at an institution noted for its mathematical train- 
ing, and on returning to his native country he happened to apply 
for work to a concern which needed an expert calculator. He was 
given a weekly salary of $.12, while the same concern employs for- 
eign draftsmen at $24 per week upon no other recommendation 
than their inability to speak English. 



110 THE RECORD. 

What's in a Name? 

One of our members who recently had occasion to seek employ- 
ment called on a draftsman to whom he had a letter of introduction 
hoping that his influence with the superintendent might aid him. 
After reading the letter the draftsman replied there was no hope for 
him as he did not have enough consonants in his name. If he 
could only spell his name Bjornstqrum he could get employment 
without any further recommendation. 



A New Mechanical Motion. 

By J. de D. Tejada, Member. 

We are accustomed to think that with the mechanical develop- 
ments of the last half century the possibilities of entirely new forms 
of devices for transmitting motion or power are practically ex- 
hausted. I propose to describe such a device, which I believe is, 
and which has been pronounced by competent authorities to be, 
entirely new; and which, moreover, is very useful for certain classes 
of machines. 

It has become a common fault by writers of technical literature, 
in treating of circular motion, either alternating or constant, to 
misuse the word "shaft," when meaning "axis." The fallacy of 
this, I think, will be made quite clear by the following description: 
Since my discovery of this new motion, I have found no less than 
thirty-five standard authorities wrong in their definition of spur 
gears, pulleys, discs, etc. When 1 first conceived of the possibility 
of such motion, in order to definitely ascertain its originality, I sent 
a question in the following words to many engineers and profes- 
sional publications: "Is it possible to drive a shaft by means of 
well-designed and cut spur gears, the driven shaft not being parallel 
to nor in the same plane with the driving shaft?" 

The reply in every case was that such a proposition was absurd 
and utterly impossible. After that I made the model from which 
the illustrations accompanying this article were made, and then 




Fig. 1. Plate A. 




Fig. 2- Plate B. 







Fig. 3. Plate C. 



) 



THE RECORD. Ill 

built a milling machine for special valve work in which the new 
principle is involved, which is working in a perfectly satisfactory 
manner; and I am now building four more similar machines to 
fill orders. 

Like all new things, which, when published, people wonder 
that they have not thought of before, the underlying principle is 
very simple and is as follows: The axis of one or both of the shafts 
may or may not be in the axis of the gear it carries, and in the case 
of both shafts being so fitted, the departure may be as great as 90 
degrees vertically and horizontally. The gear or pulley keeps its 
own constant axis, but being mounted in such a manner as to be 
capable of free movement on the surface of a keyed sphere formed 
on the shaft, it swivels with each revolution and at every point of 
the revolution holds the two shafts to their own axes held in rigidly 
supported bearings, while the gears or pulleys act from the center 
of the sphere. It is obvious from this that the direction of the shaft 
axis may be changed, within the limits of possible movement, 
depending upon the relative diameter of the sphere and shaft, and 
this without checking the motion of revolution, it being necessary 
only that the movement pivot upon the center of the sphere, that 
point being rigidly maintained. This, of course, dispenses with 
bevel, mitre and spiral gears and with idlers on pulleys, and lias 
the great advantage of being capable of setting to any angle, while 
any change in the angle of transferred motion by mitre gears, etc., 
would in most cases require an independent machine. 

Fig. 1 shows the model with the shafts parallel but not in the 
same plane. Fig. 2 shows the same with the shafts neither parallel 
nor in the same plane, and Fig. 3 is a plan view with shafts, as in 
Fig. 2. 



112 THE RECORD 

Press Clippings* 

THE TRAINING OF DRAFTSMEN AND DESIGNERS. 

The following letter comes to us from the Pacific coast, touching 
on another phase of the shipbuilding industry. There can be no 
question that this country affords the most meager facilities to young 
men who desire to fit themselves for work of any kind in the ship- 
yard, from designing downward. Those opportunities that exist in 
kindred occupations for the industrious beginner to steadily perfect 
himself are entirely lacking in the shipbuilding industry. The boy 
who goes into a shipyard as a learner and spends four years in 
squirting soda water on a boring tool for nominal wages is certain 
to find that his time has been wasted by his employer, and that he 
is no nearer to a knowledge of ship and engine building than 
before he saw the inside of some highly rated shipyard. 

"Editor Forest and Stream: 

"You make the statement that there are no American naval 
architects who have thus far turned out any steam yachts that can 
compare with English craft, but you do not state the reason why. 

"The reason is that no encouragement is given to an American 
to become a naval architect, 

" What chance is there for an ambitious young man to rise to a 
position of responsibility in our American shipyards, where every 
position of importance is given to foreign draftsmen, either English, 
Scotch, German, or Scandinavian? If a native born American 
does get a show, it is only because he is a relative of some member 
of the firm. 

"It has been my observation that these firms who are howling 
for protection to American labor — especially those of the Pacific 
coast, who expect Government contracts to be awarded to them at a 
higher price than their Eastern competitors, on account of an 
alleged higher cost of labor — generally run their yards as far as 
possible with a lot of apprentices who are paid $3 and $4 a week, 
and who are discharged at the end of their apprenticeship if they 



THE RECORD. 113 

venture to ask for living wages, and their places filled with a new 
lot of apprentices who may expect a like fate. 

"What show is there in our navy yards (except with a good, 
strong pull), where American boys are given the very lowest rating, 
and all the first-class positions are held by Scandinavian and 
German draftsmen? In one case at a U. S. navy yard a German 
draftsman, rated second-class as an engineer, was discharged and 
re-employed as a first-class ship draftsmen, a trade he was entirely 
unfamiliar with; while native born Americans in the same office, 
with eight or more years' experience as ship draftsmen, are refused 
promotion even when recommended by the chief naval constructor 
of the navy. 

"As for designing yachts, a Herreshoff would starve to death on 
the Pacific coast if he made yacht designing his specialty. The 
yachts out here are twenty and more years behind the times; the 
only yachtsmen with enterprise to pay for a design being George 
and Thomas Davidson, who built the cutter Folly from designs by 
the late Edward Burgess, and who were rewarded by seeing her 
beat everything in sight, even yachts in the larger classes. Yachts- 
men on San Francisco Bay are perfectly contented with anything 
that the builder will whittle out for them, and as for paying for a 
design such a thing is not even dreamed of. Such is the Pacific 
coast. No doubt the rest of the country is just as bad. 

"W. B. C." 

"Vallejo, Cal., June 2." 



Americans will have rather more confidence in the prowess of 
the Brooklyn than in her sister ships, since it has boon made known 
that she has a much greater proportion of Americans in her crew 
than any of the others. The feeling may not be well founded, for 
alien soldiers and sailors made splendid records in the Civil War, 
but it is a natural feeling, nevertheless; and, besides, the precedent 
does not fully cover the case. It is as certain as anything can be 
that our next war will not be among ourselves, bul with some for- 
eign nation, and, very possibly, that nation will have many repre- 



8 it 



114 THE RECORD. 

sentatives in our navy. They cannot be expected to forget old 
associations altogether, and they will always be objects of suspicion, 
if not a source of weakness. The American navy should be offi- 
cered and manned by Americans only. and. if possible, by none but 
native Americans. With proper laws on the subject, there would 
be no difficulty in procuring as many of them as might be wanted. 



The constitutional amendment denying the right of suffrage to 
an unnaturalized foreigner was adopted by an overwhelming 
majority at the recent election in Minnesota. Texas also decided 
that an alien must have taken out his first papers at least six 
months before the election, in order to vote. Gradually the people 
of the United States are beginning to understand that if they are to 
continue to possess their country they must govern it themselves, 
and are taking measures to secure their rights. It is none too soon. 
This country is for Americans, and those who will not become 
Americans should have no share in its direction. 



THE RECORD. 115 



Obituary* 

IN MEMORIAM. 

Arthur Sampson Chasteney Cleborne, of " Kilbarron," Prince 
George County, Maryland, eldest son of Dr. C. J. Cleborne, Medical 
Director United States Navy, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., on the 
15th April, 1863, and died at his residence in Washington, D. C, 
29th September, 1896. 

He was educated at private schools in Philadelphia until the age 
of ten, when he was placed under the tuition of that excellent teacher 
the Rev. John Clemson, of " Claymont," Del., and finished his liter- 
ary course at St. John's College, Burlington, N. J., in 1879. 

He was intended for the bar, but, brought up as he was in a naval 
atmosphere, he early evinced such a decided taste for marine draft- 
ing, science, and architecture that it was determined to give him a 
practical course in shipbuilding prior to taking up " Admiralty law," 
for which he was well fitted, and was enthusiastically engaged in that 
study at the time of his death. 

Accordingly, in 1880, he received from Commodore T. D. Wilson, 
late chief of bureau, an appointment in the construction depart- 
ment of the Kittery Navy Yard, where, "beginning at the foot of 
the ladder," he mastered the fundamental principles of naval con- 
struction, and became manually and technically familiar with the 
various branches of wooden shipbuilding. 

Being a diligent and faithful student, his improvement was so 
rapid that after two years of faithful service he received his " certifi- 
cate" and was promoted to the drafting room. In 1885 lie was sent 
on Government service to Roach's ship yards at Chester, Pa., and in 
1886 he was detailed for duty connected with the designs oi' the 
"new cruisers" at the great shipbuilding establishment of the Cramps, 
near Philadelphia, where he remained until he was transferred to 
the Bureau of Construction in the Navy Department, in L888. 

In 1890 he married Nina Lansdale, the fifth daughter of the late 
Judge Edmund Bryee DuVal, of " Marietta; 1 Prince George County, 
Maryland, and granddaughter of the Hon. Gabriel DuVal, who was 



116 THE RECORD. 

Comptroller of the United States Treasury under President Jefferson, 
and an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States 
in 1835. 

Mr, Cleborne leaves a widow and two sons to mourn his loss. In 
his death the Construction Department of the Navy, the Franklin 
Institute, and the Association of American Draftsmen lose a popular, 
capable, and conscientious member, and the news of his sudden and 
unexpected demise at the early age of thirty-three will bring regret 
to his many warm friends. 

He was sigularly retiring, modest, and unassuming in manner, of 
a kind, thoughtful, and gentle disposition — high in his ideal of 
honor and duty. True to his own motto, " Ne obliviscaris," he never 
forgot a favor nor a friend, nor never made an enemy. In the best 
sense he was " a faithful servant, and a Christian gentleman!" 

THE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN DRAFTSMEN. 

Whereas, The unseen hand of God has removed from our midst 
our beloved associate and friend, Arthur S. Chasteney Cleborne, who 
was so suddenly summoned " to that bourne from which no traveler 
returns; " and 

Whereas, That in his death the Association of American Drafts- 
men keenly feel the loss of one whose amiable disposition, gentle- 
manly demeanor, and estimable character, and whose willingness to 
assist in the furtherance of the best interests of American draftsmen 
endeared him to his associates ; therefore be it 

Resolved, That the Association of American Draftsmen exj:>ress by 
these resolutions their regret at the untimely death of our beloved 
brother, and their sincere sympathy with the widow and parents in 
this their sore affliction : and be it further 

Resolved, That in evidence of our sympathy copies of these reso- 
lutions be forwarded to the widow and parents of our late brother. 

Given at Washington under the seal of the Association this 3d 
day of October, 1896, by order of the Council. 

[seal] Sidney I. Bessilievre, 

President. 
W. T. Jones, Secretary. 



THE RECORD. 117 

IN MEMORIAM. 

E. E. McClymont. Member of Association of American Drafts- 
men. Born at Chester, Pa., 1864. Died in Philadelphia, December 
29, 1896, aged thirty-two. 

Mr. McClymont served his apprenticeship in the drawing room at 
Roach's ship yard, Chester, Pa., remaining there from 1881 until the 
failure of that firm in the fall of 1885. 

Shortly after the Roach failure he entered the employ of Samuel 
L. Moore's Sons Co., of Elizabethport, N. J., remaining there three 
years. 

While with the Moore's Co. he was engaged designing special ma- 
chinery for cordage, sugar, and oil works. 

In August, 1888, he resigned the position of superintendent of 
these works to enter the service of the Navy Department, in which 
he continued until the time of his death. 

At various times he was stationed at Chester, Washington, and 
Philadelphia, his last duty being chief draftsman at the League 
Island Navy Yard. 

Mr. McClymont was distinguished by devotion to duty, giving to 
all matters placed in his hands careful painstaking service. At the 
time of his death he was Secretary of the Philadelphia Chapter of 
the Association of American Draftsmen. 

ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN DRAFTSMEN. 

Washington, D. C, January 2, 1897. 

Whereas, It has pleased the Great Creator of the Universe to re- 
move our beloved friend and companion, E. E. McClymont, from 
the cares and troubles of this transitory existence to a sink 1 of end- 
less duration ; and 

Whereas, In the death of our brother we keenly feel the loss not 
only of one whose estimable disposition and unsullied character en- 
deared him to all who had the pleasure of his acquaintance, bul one 
whose untiring efforts and indefatigable energy has assisted very ma- 
terially in building up and strengthening our profession as Ameri- 
can draftsmen ; therefore be it 



118 THE RECORD. 

Resolved, That we offer to the widow and family of our departed 
brother, who are most heart stricken at the loss we have all sus- 
tained, our deep, sincere, and most affectionate sympathy in this their 
hour of great affliction ; and be it further 

Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be forwarded to the 
widow of our late brother. 
By authority of the Council. 

[seal] Sidney I. Bessilievre, 

President. 
W. T. Jones, Secretary. 



DIRECTORY OF MEMBERS, 
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN DRAFTSMEN. 

At Large. 



NAME OF MEMBER. 


BRANCH OF SCIENCE. 


ADDRESS. 


ALLAN ERNEST A 




Newport News,Va. 

315 E st ne, Washington, D. C. 


BESSELIEVRE, SIDNEY I 


do... 


BESSELIEVRE, WM. C 


do 


Bath Iron Works, Bath, Me. 


BRECHT, F. C 


Marine Engineering 


Bu of Steam Eng, Navy Dept. 


BREWER, H. G 


Cartography and Archi- 
tecture. 


1601 Meridian av nw, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 




BYRNE, J. W 


Naval Architecture 


Bu of C and R, Navy Dept. 
Dept of Steam Eng, Navy Yard, 
Norfolk, Va. 


BEACH FRANK G 


Marine Engineering 




BOUCHER, ALEX 


do 


520 Nostrand av, Brooklyn, N. Y. 


BOUCHER HORACE E 




Do 


BROWN H 


do .. 


Newport News, Va. 
Parkville, L. I. 


BUCKLEY, W. L 


do 


BREWER C. B 


do 


1016 McCulloh st, Baltimore, Md. 
Newport News, Va. 


BARRETT, GEO. E 


Marine Engineering 


BOYD, ROBT. J 


Naval Architecture and 


914 Lafayette av, Brooklyn, N. Y. 




Mechan. Engineering. 


[D. C. 


CALVERT C. P 




630 East Capitol st, Washington, 
920 N C av Washington D. C. 


CASSIDY ARTHUR B 




COLLINS, W. A 


Marine Engineering. 

do 




CRESWELL, W. N 


Newport News, Va. 

Bu of C & R, Navy Yd, Wash,D.C. 

900 4th st. Portsmouth, Va. 


CROSS FRANK W 




CURRIER, EMERY R 


do 


CARPENTER, C. C, Jr 


do 


Bu of C & R, Navy Dept. 


COLE WINTHROP 


Mechanical Engineering 

Marine Engineering 

Naval Architecture 


Hampton, Va. 

Newport News, Va. 

1101 Pine st, San Francisco, Cal. 


CORNELL, HOWARD E 


DENNISON, A. L 


DOBSON, WM. A 


do . 


Bu C & R, Navy Dept, Wash, 1 >.C. 
Hotel Vanillin, Wash, D. C. 


DODGE, CHAS. C 


do 


DONNELLY, P.J 


do 


241 Bridge st, Brooklyn, N. Y. 


DREW, A. W 


do 


Care Cramp & Sons, Phi la, Pa, 
914 Lafayette av, Brooklyn, N . Y . 
Newport News, Ya. 


EPES HENRY S 


do 


EATON, GEO. M 


Marine Engineering 


ELWELL, HOWARD P. 


Mechanical Engineering 


BuC&R, Navy Dept, Wash, D.C. 


FLANEGIN, R. B 


Naval Architecture. 




FROTHINGHAM, GEO. P 


do 


1323 R. Lav, Washington, l>.r. 


FITZ ERVIN M 


Locomotive Engineering 


Schenectady Locomotive Wks, 

Schenectady, N. Y. 




GRICE, FRANCIS E 


Naval Architecture 


BuofCA R, Navy Dept. [N.Y. 


GILMER, T 


do 


BuCA R, Navy Yard, Brooklyn, 


GENSLER, A. C 


do 


BuofOA R,Navy Yd,Wash,D.C. 


GILDNER, ALBERT W., JR 


Marine Engineering 


Newport News, Va., PO H<>\ 35. 


GREEN, WINTHROP D 


Naval Architecture 


Care Superintending Construct- 
or, Bath Iron Works, Bath, Me. 


HANSCOM,I.C 


do 


Antrim, N. 11., PO Box64. [N.J. 


EOOVER, JOHN B.,Ju 


do 


CrescenlShipy'd.K.li/.al.elhport, 



11!» 



120 THE RECORD. 

Directory of Members of the Association of American Draftsmen, etc* — Continued. 



NAME OF MEMBER. 


BRANCH OF SCIENCE. 


ADDRESS. 


HOPKINS, ALBERT L 


do 


Hotel Warwick, Newport News, 
301 Thompson st, Phila, Pa. [Va. 


HUGHES, DANIEL M... 


do 


HYSON, JOSEPH M 


Mechanical Engineering 

Naval Architecture 

do 


HERBERT, J. PENDLETON 

HARTT, WM. H 


509Dinwiddie st,Portsmouth,Va 
Bu C & R, Navy Yd, Norfolk, Va. 
Newport News, Va. 
1104 East Capitol st, Washing- 
ton, D. C. [adelphia, Pa. 
Baldwin Locomotive Wks, Phil- 
Bu of Steam Eng, Navy Dept. 
Bureau of C & R, Navy Dept. 


HUGHES, WM. G 


do 


HILDRETH, D. M 

JOHNSON, A. H 

JOHNSON, CHAS. R 

JONES, W. T 


Topographical Drafts- 
man. 

Marine Engineering 

do 

Naval Architecture 

do 


KIRBY, G. L 


Bu C & R, Mare Isl. Navy Yd,Cal . 
Hydro. Office, Navy Dept, Wash, 
Bu of C & R, Navy Dept. [D.C. 


KLARKING, A 

KNOWLES, FRANK P 


Cartography 

Naval Architecture 

Cartography 

Naval Architecture 

do 

do 


LATIMER, JOS. S 

LEE, JAS. W 

LOCKE, ARTHUR H 


Hydro. Office, Navy Dept, Wash, 
Balto, Md, Custom House. [D.C. 
CrescentShipy'd,Elizabethport, 


LEITCH ALBERT C . 


400 2d st, Brooklyn, N. Y [N.J. 
207 Rodney st, Brooklyn, N. Y. 


LE PINE, FRED'K C 


do 

Electrical and Marine 
Engineering. 

Marine Engineering 

Civil Engineering 


LOVELL, RALPH L 


Newport News, Va. 


LAYMAN, ALFRED C 


1131 N. Carey st, Baltimore, Md. 


MAURO, LEWIS J 


Bu C & R, Navy Dept, Wash, D.C. 
Bureau of Steam Engineering, 
Navy Dept, Wash, D. C. [Serv. 
Treas Dept,Wash,D. C, Rev. Mar. 
Bureau of C & R, Navy Dept. 
642 Cambria st, Philadelphia, Pa . 
519 19th st, San Francisco, Cal. 


MASCHMEYER, A. M. P 

MCALLISTER, C. A. 


Marine Engineering 

do 


McREE, CHAS. ST. JOHN 

MOORE, EDWARD C. 


Naval Architecture 

Mechanical Engineering 
do 


MORGAN LEO 


MOULD, GEORGE R 


Naval Architecture 

Architecture. 

Naval Architecture 

.... do 


Newport News, Va. 


MOZIER, H, P 

NELSON, J. A 

NICKUM WM C 


[tol, R. I. 
Care Herreschoff Mfg. Co, Bris- 
P Box 658, Newport News, Va. 


OLIVER ANTHONY J 


do 


676E.135thst,N.Y.City. [Box 493 


OSSE, EDWARD A 


Mechanical Engineering 
.do 


11 St. Paul st, Baltimore, Md; PO 


PERRY C R 


2020 G st nw, Washington, D. C. 


PETTIGREW, T. J 


Naval Architecture 

do 


Bu C & R, Navy Dept, Wash, D.C. 


POWELL WM T 


Do. 


POWELL HENRY H 


do 


Do. [or 13 School st. 


PURDON JOHN T 


do 


356 Marlborough st,Boston,Mass, 


QUINN JOHN F . 


do 


Newport News, Va., P O Box 410. 


ROBERTS, A. C 


Cartography and Min- 
ing Engineering. 

Naval Architecture 

Marine Engineering 

Naval Architecture 

do 


Hydrographic Office, Navy De- 


RODMAN, GEO 


partment, Washington, D. C. 
Bu of C & R,Navy Yd,Wash,D.C. 


ROSS, CHAS. E 


347 Kerlin st, Chester, Pa. 


ROWEN WM. S 


1031 E. Montgomery av,Phila, Pa 


ROTTMER HENRY E 


533 8th st ne, Washington, D. C. 


RAFFIN EDWARD 


Mechanical Engineering 

Marine Engineering 

Naval Architecture 

do 


221 West 35th st, New York City. 


ROZYCKI, L. 0. STEPHEN 

SCHLADT, ANTHONY 


1339 L st nw, Washington, D. C. 
Bu C & R, Navy Dept, Wash, D. C 


SCOTT HARRY C 


! Do. 


SCOTT, HARRY W 


Mechanical Engineering 


J 4244 Frankford av, Phila, Pa. 



THE RECORD. 121 

Directory of Members of the Association of American Draftsmen, etc, — Continued* 



NAME OF MEMBER. 


BRANCH OF SCIENCE. 


ADDRESS. 


SCOTT, WM. H 


Naval Architecture 


Del.Riv.I. S.B.& E. Wks,Chester, 


SHAW, WM. F., JR 


do. 


[Pa. 


SHOCK, H. C 


do 


Office Sup. Constructor, U. S. N., 
Union Iron Wks,San Fran,Cal. 






SICARD, W. F 


Marine Engineering 

Mechanical Engineering 
Naval Architecture 


Bu of Steam Eng, Wash, D. C. 


SMITH, JEREMIAH H. 


SOUTHARD, T. B 


Bu of C & R, Navy Yard, N. Y. 


STEARNS, J. W 


Cartography 


Hydro. Office, Navy Dept,Wash. 


STOEVER, FRANK M 


Naval Architecture 


Office Sup. Const'rU S.N., S B & 




D. D. Co., Newport News, Va. 


STILES, LINFORD S 


Mechanical Engineering 


1332 E. Susquehanna av, Phila- 


SWEANEY, B. WHEELER 


Marine Engineering. 


delphia, Pa.] 


SCHAEFER,M. D 


do 


Newport News, Va. 


SIMPSON, H. P 


Civil Engineering and 
Cartography. 


1021 11th st nw,Washington,D.C. 


SWEENY, R. 0., JR 


Mechanical Engineering 


Fort St. Philip, Neptune P 0, La. 


SCHOOLER, C.V 




511 County st, Portsmouth, Va. 
1001 Edmondson av, Balto, Md. 


SCOTT, J. ALVAH 


do 


SELDEN, HENRY S 


Topographical Drafts- 


1025 8th stnw, Washington, D. C. 


TAGART, A. C 


Mechanical Engineering 




TOBIN, GEO. H 


Bu C&R, Navy Dept,Wash,D.C. 
Do. 


TORREY, JOHN D 


do 


TRUEWORTHY, ORSON W 


Mechanical Engineering 


Erie, Pa. 


TEJADA, JUAN de D 


do 


229 East 25th st, New Y^ork City. 


THOMAS, D. D., Jr 


Marine Engineering 


1111 N. Carey st, Baltimore, Md. 


WACHSMANN, WM 


do 


Bu St'm Eng,N. Dept,Wash,D.C. 


WALLACE, WM. M 


Civil Engineering 


Bu C & R, NavyDept, Wash,D. C. 


WALLER, W. W 


Naval Architecture 


305% Loudon st,Portsmouth,Ya. 


WATERS, J. W. L 


do 


Newport News, Va , P Box 138. 


WALTON, G. J 


Medhanical Engineering 


1660 Unity st,Frankford av,Phil- 
adelphia, Pa. 


WINANT, WM. E 


Naval Architecture 


Bu of C & R, Navy Yard, N. Y. 


WOODBRIDGE, J. E 

WRIGHT, W. LLOYD 


do 


Chester, Pa. 


do 


Columbian Iron Wks.Balto,Md. 


WHEATER, FRANK R 


do 


Bu C & R,Navy Dept, Wash, 1 >.C. 


WHITTAKER, FRANK B 


do 


Newport News, Va. 


WASHBURN, GEO. H 


do 


Nav. Station, New London, Conn 


WEBB, THOS. E., Jr 


do 


Office Naval Constructor, Navy 




Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y. 


WILSON, GEO. H 


do 


Office Sup. Const'r at Columbian 
Iron Works, Baltimore, Md. 


WILSON, J. CHAPMAN 


do 


Do. 


WALSH, EDW. M 


do 


329 Henry st, Portsmouth, Va. 


WRIGHT, WM. V 


do 


Newport News, Va. 


YOUNG, PHILIP M 


Marine Engineering 


Newport News, Va., PO Bos 628. 


YOUNG, WM. J 


Naval Architecture 


Office of Engineer of Subways, 

Boston, Mass. 



Philadelphia Chapter, 



PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

OFFICERS FOR 1897. 

President Wm. A. Leavitt, Je. 

First Vice-President J. Nelson Alexander. 

Second Vice-President A. E. Rhodes. 

Secretary Everett M. Matthews. 

Financial Secretary Paul A. Hichborn. 

Treasurer Walter H. Rogers. 

Board of Directors : 

First Member Wm. M. Ellenberger. 

Second Member H . W. Alrich. 

Tliird Member Victor Mauck. 

Fourth Member Jas. G. Davis. 

Fifth Member Wm. Hodges. 

Member of Council Jas. W. Sims. 



NAME OF MEMBER. 


BRANCH OF SCIENCE. 


ADDRESS. 


ALEXANDER, J. N 

ALRICH, HERBERT W 


Mechanical Engineering 

do 

Naval Architecture 


58th st & Hoffman av, Phila, Pa. 
1531 Arch st, Phila, Pa. 


BARRY, E. D 


1818 Chestnut st, Phila, Pa. 


BERRY, BENJ. L 

BECKWITH, ALFRED T. ... 


do 

Civil Engineering 

Mechanical Engineering 

do 

Marine Engineering 

Mechanical Engineering 
do 


Care of John Dialogue & Sons, 

Camden, N. J. 
1824 Frankford av, Phila, Pa. 


BOYD. WM 


1605 S 17th st, Phila, Pa. 


BURROUGH, STANLEY X 

COCHRANE, H. P 

DEVLIX, HEXRY 


1818 Van Pelt st, Phila, Pa. 
3603 N 22d st, Phila, Pa. 
4405 Chestnut st, Phila, Pa. 


DERBYSHIRE, GEO. H 

DAVIS, JACOB M., SB 


2739 Ann st, Phila, Pa. 

1031 Frankford road, Phila, Pa. 


DAVIS, JAMES G 


Mechanical Engineering 
do 

Civil Engineering 

do 

Naval Architecture 


1909 Carpenter st, Phila, Pa. 


D WIS, HOWARD S.... 


Woodburv, N. J. 


ELLEXBERGER, WM. M 

ELLEXBERGER, GEO. W 

ETTEB, HARRY B 

EISEXBISE. HARRY C 


1630 Wharton st, Phila, Pa. 

Do. 
2442 N. 8th st, Philadelphia, Pa. 
Chester, Pa. 


FOTHERGILL, H. R 

FEASTER. WM 


Mechanical Engineering 
Naval Architecture 


302 W 7th st, Wilmington, Del. 
Care of Chas. Hillman & Sons, 


GAMBLE, J. W 


Phila, Pa. 
2826 N 12th st, Phila, Pa. 


HICHBORX. PAUL R 


Naval Architecture 

do 

Mechanical Engineering 
Naval Architecture 


1736 N 15th st, Phila, Pa. 


HARTMAN, THOMAS H., Jr.... 
HODGES, WM 


Care of John Dialogue & Sons, 

Camden, N. J. 
1840Ridgwav Terrace, Phila, Pa. 


HOWISON, HENRY . 


1.540 Diamond st, Phila, Pa. 




122 





THE RECORD. 

Philadelphia Chapter, Philadelphia, Pa.— Continued. 



123 



NAME OF MEMBER. 


BRANCH OF SCIENCE. 


ADDRESS. 


HARTMAN, J. N 

HOWELL, WM, N 

HOYER, WALTER K 


Designer and Illustrator 
Marine Engineering 

Mechanical Engineering 

Marine Engineering 

Mechanical Engineering 
Naval Architecture 


652 N 36th st, Phila, Pa. 

Care of Wm. Cramp & Sons Ship 

Building Works, Phila, Pa. 
140 N 12th st, Phila, Pa. 


KURTZ, J. H 

KIESECKER, J. P 


1022 Marlborough st, Phila, Pa. 
1726 N 15th st, Phila, Pa. 


KENDALL, CHAS. S 


1222 Beach st, Phila, Pa. 


LAKE, LEWIS H 


do 

Mechanical Engineering 

Marine Engineering 

Naval Architecture 

do 


523 Elm st, Camden, N. J. 


LEAVITT, WM., Jr 

LINCH, CHAS. S 

LUCKETT, D.J 


2735 Montgomery av, Phila, Pa. 

1507 Tioga st, Phila, Pa. 

Care of Wm. Cramp & Sons, 


MATTHEWS, EVERETT M 


Phila, Pa. 
Care of Wm. Cramp & Sons, 

Phila, Pa. 
2636 Bouvier st, Phila, Pa. 
1030 Arch st, Phila, Pa. 


MENCKE, WM. F 

McCOLLIN, THOS. H 


Mechanical Engineering 
do 


MAUCK, VICTOR 


do 


Conshohockan, Pa. 


MOORE, JOHN Q,. A 


Naval Architecture 

do 


142 Mary st, Phila, Pa. 


MILLS, LEONARD W 


727 W 2d st, Chester, Pa. 


NUTZ, GEO. W 

NOLDE, FRED 

ORTLIP, E. FRED 


Civil and Mechanical 

Engineering. 
Mechanical Engineering 
Naval Architecture 


1009 West st, Wilmington, Del. 

4142 Parrish st, Phila, Pa. 

Care of Wm. Cramp & Sons, 


OTT, PAUL 

PETIT, WM. S 


Mechanical Engineering 
Naval Architecture 


Phila, Pa. 
530 N 6th st, Phila, Pa. 
2447 Sepviva st, Phia, Pa. 


PRATT, FRANCIS E 


do 


Care of John Dialogue & Sons, 


PATTERSON, FRANK M 


Marine Engineering 

Mechanical Engineering 

R. R. Car Designing 

Naval Architecture 


Camden, N. J. 
1308 Beach st, Phila, Pa. 


RHODES, A. E 

RICHARDS, ARCHER 

RICHMAN, LEON S. K. .. 


303 Adams st, Wilmington, Del. 
2312 J'fson st, Wilmington, Del. 
1226 S Broad st, Phila, Pa. 


RIPPEY, S. HOWARD 

ROGERS, WALTER H 


Mechanical Engineering 
Naval Architecture 


845 N 26th st, Phila, Pa. 

Care of Wm. Cramp & Sons, 


ROWEN, JOSEPH B 


do 


Phila, Pa. 
2043 Wishart st, Phila, Pa. 


SMITH, CHAS. F. X 

STORY, RICHARD N 


Architecture 

Marine Engineering 

Naval Architecture... 


1416 Wood st, Phila, Pa. 

Care of Wm. Cramp & Sons, 


SIMS, JAS. W . 


Phila, Pa. 
6339 Hancock st, German Pn.l 'a. 


SHIELDS, HENRY B 


do 


Franklinville, N. J. 


THATCHER, ALBERT E. 


do .... 


2008 N 12th st, Phila, Pa. 


THUMBERT, CHAS. H 

THOMPSON, S. K 

TEST, FRANK B 

TIN DEL, CHAS. A 


Mechanical Engineering 

do 

Civil Engineering 

Naval Architecture... 


2339 N 15th st, Phila, Pa. 
01;") Somerset st, Phila. Pa. 
2646 Amhorl st, Phila, Pa. 
Tacony, Phila, Pa. 


UMSTEAD, CHAS. H 


Civil Engineering 


L888 Mt Vernon st. Phila. Pa. 


VANSTONE, CHAS. F 


Naval Architecture 


2189 Adams st, Phila, Pa. 


WEST, G. B ! 

WOELPPER, D. A., Jr.. 


Marine Engineering 

Architecture.. 


2346 N 22d st, Phila, Pa. 

1132 S 1't'iiii square, Phila, Pa. 


YEO, GEORGE S 


Marine Engineering 


22:55 Frankford av, Phila, Pa. 



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